Definition of electric vehicles. Report: Concept and types of large-scale engines large sums of money are available, but there is no one to control the success

A motor vehicle is a special device which is designed to transport goods and people over relatively long distances by road.

Motor transport is usually classified according to different criteria, so many types can be distinguished. But the Traffic Rules use the following classification:

Dear reader! Our articles talk about typical ways to resolve legal issues, but each case is unique.

If you want to know how to solve exactly your problem - contact the online consultant form on the right or call by phone.

It's fast and free!

• Motor vehicles
• Non-motorized vehicles

Non-mechanical transport differs from mechanical transport in the absence of a motor that would set them in motion. In such devices, the motor is replaced by muscles or vehicles.

Non-mechanical ones include:

• Moped – driven by an engine;
• Trailer (towed) is a secondary component of the main vehicle;
• A bicycle is a vehicle that moves with the help of human efforts;
• A horse-drawn cart is a type of transport that begins to move with the physical efforts of the animal.

What is a motor vehicle (motor transport)

Motorized transport is by definition the opposite of non-motorized transport. The difference is that mechanical vehicles are driven by an engine. The type of engine does not matter, since it can be anything: gasoline and diesel, electric and gas.

The main condition: the purpose of vehicles is to move on roads.

The list of vehicles classified as mechanical is quite large. And based on the information that mechanical transport differs from all others in the presence of a motor, everyone may ask the question: “why is a moped not included in this list?”

The answer is simple: The structure of the moped does not allow it to be included in this list according to two criteria. The moped engine is less than 50 cubic centimeters and the speed does not exceed 50 kilometers per hour.

What then can be added to this list? Mechanical vehicles include cars and trucks, tractors, motorcycles and others.

In addition, vehicles are divided into categories.

• Category A– motorcycles: -rollers, -cycles;
• Category B– a car with an installed weight of no more than 3.5 tons. The number of permissible places is less than 8. It is allowed to use a trailer with a mass of no more than 750 kilograms. The trailer and vehicle must total 3.5 tons or less;
• Category C– a car with an installed weight of more than 3.5 tons. It is allowed to use a trailer with a weight of 750 kilograms;
• Category D– vehicles that are used to transport people over various distances. More than 8 seats are allowed in the cabin. Suitable for use with a trailer weighing 750 kilograms or less;
• BE– a car classified in category B, it is possible to operate a trailer weighing no more than 750 kilograms. The total weight of the entire train is above the permissible weight (3.5 tons);
• C.E.– a vehicle marked in category C, with a trailer exceeding the permissible weight;
• DE– a car classified as category D, the used trailer weighs more than the permissible limit (750 kilograms);
• F– trams;
• I– trolleybuses.

In this case, the trailer can be used not only as an integral part of the car, but also as a towed vehicle.

But the towing problem isn't just limited to non-motorized vehicles.

Towing of motor vehicles

Towing is:

• Transportation of one vehicle to another. Does not count as operating or using the vehicle on all types of coupling;
• Partial loading of the towed vehicle onto the towing vehicle.

Towing is carried out only with the driver at the wheel. The exception is towing with a rigid hitch, if the towed vehicle moves behind the towing vehicle without changing its trajectory.

When towing a vehicle using a hitch, the presence of people in the cab is strictly prohibited. The exception is towing with partial or incomplete loading. In this case, the presence of people in the towed vehicle is permitted.

Between vehicles involved in towing, a distance of up to 6 meters is allowed on a flexible hitch, and no more than 4 meters on a rigid hitch.

Flexible hitch:

• brakes must be in good working order

Rigid coupling:

• Working steering system
• Working brake system

Partial loading:

• Faulty steering and brake systems are acceptable

Towing is prohibited:

• On slippery roads with flexible coupling
• By road trains
• Motorcycle trailers side view
• With a faulty brake system on a flexible hitch
• With broken steering on a flexible hitch
• Moped
• More than one transport

Driving a motor vehicle

Control of motor transport - interaction with the levers of motor transport, leading to a change in its location.

A person learning to drive or who has not obtained a driver's license is not a driver or passenger. He belongs to a completely different category.

To legally operate a vehicle, you must pass a driver's license test.

A driver's license is a document that gives permission to drive a vehicle in accordance with its category.

Passengers are not drivers of the vehicle, but are in it while driving on the road or stopping.

Driving mechanical vehicles is prohibited:

• Without a driver's license
• Intoxicated
• If there are contraindications or diseases that prevent you from driving

To be allowed to learn to drive a vehicle, it is necessary to undergo a medical examination, on the basis of which the person’s ability to obtain a driver’s license will be decided.

Operation of motor vehicles

Operation of motor vehicles – use of a vehicle for its intended purpose from the moment of its acquisition until termination of use.

Operation is prohibited if:

• Fuel or brake fluid is leaking
• Muffler faulty

Indications for stopping use of the vehicle:

• Steering failure
• Faulty brake system
• Headlight failure at night
• Faulty clutch

Based on the above, we can conclude that first of all it is necessary to pay attention to the brake and steering systems.

The Traffic Rules distinguish between mechanical and non-motorized vehicles. The first of them has 9 categories, for which you must undergo a training course and a medical examination.

When driving a car, you must take into account the possibility of a breakdown and be able to react correctly while driving. If the machine malfunctions, you must stop driving.

When towing a faulty car, you need to take into account the established rules that prohibit or permit certain actions in relation to the car.

There are a number of restrictions and warnings according to which a person cannot become a driver of a mechanical vehicle.

Vehicles are devices used to transport goods or equipment installed on it or people by road. This definition gives a completely comprehensive picture of the vehicle. However, in practice this is often not enough. Traffic regulations contain more complete information about the vehicle.

General information

Conventionally, there are rail and trackless vehicles. There is also a division into non-self-propelled and self-propelled. The movement of vehicles in the latter case is ensured by the operation of the motor. The traffic rules, however, have a different classification. In accordance with the rules, mechanical and non-mechanical types of vehicles are distinguished. These categories have fundamental differences.

Mechanical vehicles

Their main feature is the presence of an engine. Mechanical vehicles (vehicles) are trucks, cars, and motorcycles. These also include self-propelled machines and tractors. The engine can be anything: hydrogen, gasoline, gas, diesel, etc. Another criterion for such vehicles is their purpose. They should only be used on the road.

Non-mechanical vehicles

These primarily include bicycles. They are vehicles, with the exception of wheelchairs, that have at least 2 wheels and are driven by the muscular energy of citizens and control them. Pedals or handles can be used for this. Motors can be installed on bicycles. Their maximum does not exceed 0.25 kW. At the same time, they automatically turn off at speeds above 25 km/h. All of these parameters allow us to classify bicycles as non-mechanical vehicles.

Special category

Mopeds are mechanical means (transport). This is due to the presence of an internal combustion engine or an electric motor. Meanwhile, mopeds are included in the category of non-motorized vehicles. This is explained by the fact that their maximum design speed does not exceed 50 km/h, and the working volume of the motor is 50 m 3 (or the rated power with a continuous load of more than 0.25 and less than 4 kW). Other vehicles are defined in a similar way. These are primarily scooters, motorcycles and other similar vehicles with engines.

Important point

Driving a vehicle classified as non-motorized does not require a driver's license. The vehicles themselves do not undergo registration; signs (numbers) are not provided for them. Meanwhile, we should not forget that the persons who own them are drivers. In this regard, driving a non-mechanical vehicle must be carried out in accordance with traffic rules.

Maximum permissible weight

It characterizes the weight of the vehicle with cargo, passengers and driver. The permitted weight is set by the manufacturer and is considered the maximum permissible. Let's understand the terminology. The maximum permissible weight of a vehicle with passengers, cargo and driver is considered to be the maximum. Exceeding the established indicator is prohibited. This is due to the fact that under high loads (greater than those provided by the manufacturer), the car body, brake system, engine, suspension, steering part will not be able to function normally. Accordingly, there is a risk of creating an emergency situation. The maximum permitted weight is to a certain extent a theoretical indicator, which is prescribed in the vehicle title and registration certificate. Often many people confuse it with the actual weight of the vehicle. The key difference between these parameters is that the permitted mass is set once and for all. However, the actual weight may constantly change. However, in any case, its value should not exceed the permitted mass.

Weight as a criterion of differentiation

Vehicles are classified according to their permitted weight. Trucks are divided into 2 categories according to this indicator. The first includes vehicles with a permissible weight of no more than 3.5 tons, the second - more than 3.5 tons. This figure acts as a kind of indicator of the size of cars. In this regard, trucks whose permissible weight is less than 3.5 tons are included in a category that also includes passenger cars.

Permitted weight of coupled vehicles

The totality of their weight parameters is taken as the maximum permissible weight of vehicles moving as a whole. To understand this situation, it is advisable to refer to the concepts of “trailer” and “road train”. The first is a vehicle that is not equipped with a motor and is used to move in conjunction with a mechanical vehicle. A road train refers to devices that are coupled to a trailer. Accordingly, if there are several vehicles in the composition, including those without engines, the total permissible weight will correspond to the sum of their permissible weight provided by the manufacturers.

Route vehicle

It is a technical vehicle intended for public use. This category includes buses, trams, and trolleybuses. Their main function is to transport people along a set route with stops at designated places. Such vehicles are determined by the following criteria:

Specifics

It should be noted that one of the key criteria for route vehicles is the availability of a working schedule. Why is this feature particularly highlighted in the definition? The fact is that while the vehicle is not on the route, it will not be considered public transport. For example, a passenger GAZELLE driving to a garage or parking place after a shift is an ordinary vehicle. There are certain concessions and privileges for public transport. For example, the driver of a route vehicle can ignore the effect of a number of prohibitions or special lanes are provided for this. They are distinguished by special markings and signs.

Vehicle purchase and sale agreement

Many vehicle owners need to sell their car. At the same time, a contract for the sale of the vehicle is drawn up. Here are some recommendations for how to compile it correctly. The document can be filled out by hand or on a computer. Particular attention should be paid to key terms. The contract must contain a number. For example, 01/2016. Subsequently, this number will be indicated in the PTS. The document contains the place and date of the transaction. The passport details of the seller and the buyer must be indicated. Information about the car must also be present in the document. They are copied from the certificate and PTS. The price of the car is set by the parties to the transaction themselves. The amount is written in numbers and words. Immediately before signing, the owner hands over the keys and documents, and the buyer hands over the money. In addition to the contract, a vehicle acceptance certificate is also drawn up.

Applications

The seller must provide:

1. Original PTS.
2. Car registration certificate.
3. Passport of a citizen of the Russian Federation.

The buyer presents:

1. A document that verifies his identity.
2. OSAGO policy.

First of all, you should make sure that the vehicle:

1. Does not serve as collateral.
2. Not a credit card.
3. Has no penalties.
4. There are no restrictions on registration actions.
5. Not arrested.

Additionally

After signing the contract, the new owner is indicated in the PTS. Within ten days from the date of the transaction, the buyer must register the car. At the end of the established period, the former owner can check the fact. In this situation, the former owner will need a signed agreement. The citizen does not have a vehicle, but it is registered with him - what to do in this case? The former owner has the right to terminate registration by submitting a corresponding agreement to the traffic police. If the policy has not expired on the date of the transaction, the citizen has the right to return the money under it. It should be taken into account that the calculation of unused days begins on the calendar date following the day of termination of the insurance agreement.

Vehicle rental

It is regulated by the provisions of the Civil Code. The Code provides for two types of charter: with and without crew. Their definitions are given in Art. 632 and 642. The subject of the agreement is exclusively vehicles intended for the transportation of baggage, passengers and cargo. Renting a vehicle with crew involves two obligations. One is directly related to the provision of a vehicle for use. The second concerns the provision of services by the crew. The differences in regulatory regulation of these types of transactions are as follows. Responsibilities for operating a vehicle provided without a crew are assigned to the lessor. In the second case, they are performed by the tenant. The payment made by the user is called freight. The crew of a leased vehicle is subordinate to both the lessee and the lessor. Liability for damage to third parties is distributed depending on a number of circumstances. So, if the vehicle is provided without a crew, it is borne by the lessee. He may be released from liability if he proves that the damage was a consequence of the actions of the victim or When renting a car with a crew, the lessor is responsible for the damage.

Conclusion

Currently, there are a huge number of vehicles of various types. Meanwhile, regardless of the vehicle category, drivers are required to comply with traffic rules. The rules establish requirements relating not only to direct movement on the roads, but also to the registration and operation of vehicles. Drivers need to remember that a vehicle acts not only as a means of transportation, but also as a source of danger. In this regard, the condition of the object must be given special attention. To prevent emergency situations, it is recommended to carry out timely diagnostics of the machine. When making transactions, you should carefully study the documents provided by the seller. The buyer, in turn, needs to register the vehicle in a timely manner.

Introduction________________________________________________________________3

1. Electric car_________________________________________________________4

2. Light electric vehicles_______________________________________12

3. A car moving on rails______________________________17

4. Monocar______________________________________________________________20

5. Unmanned aircraft_________________________________________________27

6. Solar transport_________________________________________________32

7. Monorails__________________________________________________________36

8. Motor-unit trains_________________________________________________38

9. Combined public rail transport systems_____43

10. High-speed passenger pipeline___________________________47

11. Individual aircraft__________________________49

Conclusion______________________________________________________________52

Literature_______________________________________________________________53

Introduction

At all times and among all peoples, transport has played an important role. At the present stage, its importance has grown immeasurably. Today, the existence of any state is unthinkable without powerful transport.

In the 20th century and especially in its second half, gigantic transformations took place in all parts of the world and areas of human activity. Population growth, increased consumption of material resources, urbanization, scientific and technological revolution, as well as natural geographic, economic, political, social and other fundamental factors have led to the fact that world transport has received unprecedented development both in scale (quantitative) and in qualitative relations. Along with the increase in the length of the communication network, traditional modes of transport have undergone a radical reconstruction: the rolling stock fleet has increased significantly, its carrying capacity has increased many times, and the speed of movement has increased. At the same time, transport problems came to the fore. These problems mainly relate to cities and are caused by the excessive development of the automobile industry. The hypertrophied car park of large cities in Europe, Asia and America causes constant traffic jams on the streets and deprives itself of the advantages of fast and maneuverable transport. It also seriously worsens the environmental situation.

Transport, as a particularly dynamic system, has always been one of the first consumers of the achievements and discoveries of a wide variety of sciences, including fundamental ones. Moreover, in many cases he acted as a direct customer for big science and stimulated its own development. It is difficult to name an area of ​​research that is not related to transport. Of particular importance for his progress were fundamental research in the field of such sciences as mathematics, physics, mechanics, thermodynamics, hydrodynamics, optics, chemistry, geology, astronomy, hydrology, biology and others. To no lesser extent, transport needed and needs the results of applied research conducted in the field of metallurgy, mechanical engineering, electromechanics, structural mechanics, telemechanics, automation, and, more recently, electronics and astronautics. In turn, some discoveries and achievements obtained within the framework of transport sciences themselves enrich other sciences and are widely used in many non-transport spheres of the national economy.

Further progress in transport requires the use of the latest, constantly updated results of science and advanced engineering and technology. The need to cope with increasing freight and passenger flows, the growing complexity of conditions for the construction of transport lines in uninhabited areas and large cities with difficult topography. The desire to increase the speed of communications and the frequency of departure of transport units, the need to improve comfort and reduce the cost of transportation - all this requires the improvement of not only existing vehicles, but also the search for new ones that could more fully meet the requirements than traditional modes of transport. To date, several new types of vehicles have been developed and implemented in the form of permanent or pilot installations, and much more exist in the form of projects, patents or simply ideas.

It should be borne in mind that most of the so-called new modes of transport were proposed in principle many years ago, but they were not used and are now being re-proposed or revived on a modern technical basis.

1.Electric car

An electric car is a vehicle whose driving wheels are driven by an electric motor powered by batteries. It first appeared in England and France in the early 80s of the nineteenth century, that is, before cars with internal combustion engines. The cab designed by I.V. Romanov in 1899 was also electric. The traction motor in such machines was powered by lead-acid batteries with an energy capacity of only 20 watt-hours per kilogram. In general, to power a 20-kilowatt engine for an hour, a lead-acid battery weighing 1 ton was required. Therefore, with the invention of the internal combustion engine, car production began to rapidly gain momentum, and electric cars were forgotten until serious environmental problems arose. Firstly, the development of the greenhouse effect with subsequent irreversible climate change and, secondly, a decrease in the immunity of many people due to a violation of the foundations of genetic inheritance.

These problems were caused by toxic substances that are contained in fairly large quantities in the exhaust gases of an internal combustion engine. The solution to the problems is to reduce the level of toxicity of exhaust gases, especially carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, while the volume of car production is increasing.

Scientists, having conducted a series of studies, have outlined several directions for solving these problems, one of which is the production of electric vehicles. This is, in fact, the first technology to officially achieve zero-emission status, and it is already on the market.

Everyone probably has an idea of ​​why an electric car is attractive. First of all, it produces almost no emissions of harmful substances. The toxic gases released into the atmosphere during charging and discharging batteries are incomparably smaller than during the operation of internal combustion engines (ICE). To heat electric vehicles in winter, they are equipped with autonomous heaters that consume gasoline or diesel fuel. But they, of course, do not pollute the atmosphere as much as internal combustion engines.

The second advantage is the simplicity of the device. The electric motor has a very attractive characteristic for vehicles: at low rotation speeds it has a large torque, which is very important when you need to get going or overcome a difficult section of the road. The internal combustion engine develops maximum torque at medium speeds, so if a lot of effort is required at low speeds, it has to be increased using a gearbox. Trolleybuses, for example, do not need such a unit. An electric car doesn't need it either, so it's easier to drive than a car with a manual transmission.

The third advantage follows from the second. An electric car does not require as much care as a regular car: there are fewer adjustments, it does not consume a lot of oil, the cooling system is simpler, and the fuel system (except for the heater) is completely absent.

Yet an electric car is not as simple as it might seem: it requires complex voltage converters and many heavy and bulky batteries that are difficult to accommodate. The main drawback that holds back the introduction of electric vehicles is the low energy consumption of batteries. The gasoline tank of a small car weighs about 50 kg, providing a power reserve of more than half a thousand kilometers. Batteries usually weigh more than 100 kg (or even several hundred), and the range does not exceed 100 km, and when moving at low speed.

Contrary to popular belief about the high efficiency of battery electric vehicles, analysis shows that only 15% or less of the chemical energy of fuel burned in power plants is used to propel the vehicle. This occurs due to energy losses in power lines, transformers, converters, battery chargers and batteries themselves, electric machines, both in traction and generator modes, as well as in brakes when energy recovery is not possible. For comparison, a diesel engine at optimal mode converts about 40% of the chemical energy of the fuel into mechanical energy. With the widespread use of battery electric vehicles, and especially taking into account the above, they simply will not have enough electricity generated by the world's power plants. We should not forget that the total installed power of the engines of all cars far exceeds the power of all power plants in the world.

The problems are eliminated when electric vehicles are powered by so-called primary sources of electricity, which generate energy directly from fuel. First of all, such sources are fuel cells (FC), which consume oxygen and hydrogen. Oxygen can be taken from the air, and hydrogen, in principle, can be stored in compressed or liquefied form, as well as in so-called hydrides. But it is more realistic to obtain it from regular automobile fuel directly on an electric vehicle using a converter. The efficiency of fuel cells decreases somewhat, but the entire fueling infrastructure does not change. The efficiency of fuel cells is still very high - about 50%.

However, an electric vehicle powered by fuel cells is not without a common drawback - the high mass of traction electric motors of vehicles, designed for both maximum power and torque, and maximum rotation speed. At the same time, specific disadvantages characteristic of fuel cells are added. This is, firstly, the impossibility of energy recovery during braking, since fuel cells are not batteries, that is, they cannot be charged with electricity, and secondly, the low power density of fuel cells.

With the enormous specific energy of fuel cells (about 400...600 Wh/kg), the specific power with economical discharge does not exceed 60 W/kg. This makes the mass of fuel cells for the actual power required by cars very large. For example, for an electric vehicle with a maximum power requirement of 100 kW and an electric bus with a maximum power requirement of 200 kW, this corresponds to fuel cell masses of 1670 and 3330 kg, respectively. If we add the masses of the traction electric motors, approximately equal to 150 and 400 kg, respectively, we get the masses of the power units that are completely unacceptable for a passenger electric vehicle and require a five-ton trailer for an electric bus.

Attempts are being made to reduce the mass of fuel cells using capacitor energy storage devices with high power density as intermediate energy sources. However, this path is not effective enough, since the best modern capacitor storage devices available for automotive vehicles have specific energy indicators of about 0.55 Wh/kg and 0.8 Wh/liter. In this case, to accumulate only 2 kWh of energy (this value is recommended by experts for both electric vehicles and electric buses), about 3000 kg or 2.5 m 3 of capacitors will be required, which is unrealistic. Lower values ​​of stored energy significantly reduce the dynamic qualities of the machine. In addition, in the event of a short circuit, powerful capacitors can catch fire, which is very undesirable for transport. It is much more effective to use a superflywheel connected to a reversible electric machine as an intermediate energy storage device.

Super flywheel is a flywheel made by winding fibers or ribbons onto an elastic center. The specific energy of a super flywheel is an order of magnitude greater than the values ​​of this parameter for the best monolithic flywheels, and it also has the property of a safe rupture that does not produce fragments.

Such schemes have been implemented in the latest prototypes of hybrid electric vehicles from Mechanical Technology Inc. (USA), EDO Energy (USA), and the famous Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL, USA). The specific energy of superflywheels made of Kevlar and graphite, reaching hundreds of Wh/kg, reduces its required mass to several kilograms (with a specific energy of 200 Wh/kg, to accumulate 2 kWh, a superflywheel weighing only 10 kg will be required). However, the electric storage machine, required here in addition to the traction motor, and designed for maximum power and therefore very heavy, reduces the efficiency of this scheme. In addition, like the traction motor, it must be reversible (both by the motor and by the generator), which further complicates the drive.

The original design of a hybrid power unit with a flywheel drive and an electromechanical drive was proposed, manufactured and tested by BMW (Germany). The undoubted advantage of this technical solution is the presence of only one electric machine, which reduces weight and brings it closer to automotive circuits (Fig. 1.1). BMW does not specify the type of flywheel in the report, so the drive used is conventionally called simply “flywheel”.

Figure 1.1. Diagram of a hybrid power unit with a flywheel drive and electromechanical drive from BMW (Germany):
1 – current source; 2 – control system; 3 – reversible electric machine; 4 – differential mechanism; 5 – multiplier; 6 – flywheel drive; 7 – final drive

Current source 1 via converters and control system 2 connected to a reversible electric machine 3 , designed for the maximum power of an electric vehicle. Electric machine 3 through a complex differential mechanism 4 with multiplier 5 connected to the flywheel 6 accumulator and final drive 7 . As a result, the mass of the current source 1 , for example, a fuel cell, can be selected based on specific energy rather than specific power, which reduces it for an electric car and electric bus with a range of 400 and 600 km, respectively, to 100...150 and 700...1000 kg. This is quite acceptable for these vehicles.

However, the essential drawback of all electric drive circuits is the presence of a heavy and complex reversible electric motor. This is reflected in the efficiency of the drive and its weight, including the current converter system. A powerful electric machine is uneconomical when operating at low powers, typical for accelerating (charging) a flywheel drive. In addition, in the scheme, in addition to the main gear, there is a differential mechanism with a complex design and control with a multiplier and three friction control systems (clutches or brakes), which complicates and increases the cost of the drive.

A new concept for an electric car proposed by prof. N.V. Gulia, consists of maximum approximation and unification of electrical and automobile devices. This makes it possible to extremely simplify and reduce the weight of the vehicle’s power unit, increase its efficiency and energy recovery efficiency, and also make it possible to use existing car and bus chassis for installing power units of electric vehicles and electric buses. The latter circumstance should significantly reduce the cost of machines, unify their production to the maximum extent with the ability to quickly change the ratio of the number of machines of various types and their production program. In addition, at the request of the customer, the vehicle can be equipped with both a source of mechanical energy (conventional or hybrid thermal engine) and electrical energy (fuel cells with a super flywheel), with the installation of replaceable units in the same engine compartment while completely preserving the entire transmission.

Such a transmission should be designed for the future, and include not a stepped, but a continuously variable transmission. Such gearboxes are already quite widely produced on the basis of belt variators with various types of belts (“pull” and “push”), and are used on cars from Nissan, Honda, Fiat, Subaru, etc.

Moscow State Industrial University (MGIU), in collaboration with AMO ZiL, is working on the development of a continuously variable transmission based on a new planetary disc variator. A continuously variable transmission based on a new concept disc variator can be used in both passenger cars and trucks (including truck tractors) and buses.

The new CVT, designed for high torque values ​​of fairly low-speed bus engines, makes it possible to apply the new electric vehicle concept to powerful electric buses. It should be noted that for this scheme, the use of a continuously variable transmission of any type that has sufficient efficiency, small dimensions and weight, comparable with existing gearboxes, is not excluded.

The diagram of the new concept electric vehicle is shown in Fig. 1.2.

Figure 1.2. New concept electric car diagram

As in other hybrid electric vehicle schemes, the source of electricity is selected based on the specific energy criterion, which, with an exceptionally high value of this parameter, ensures low masses as well as volumes of fuel cells. In this scheme, a superflywheel with the same energy and mass parameters as in other hybrid schemes with a flywheel storage device is used as an intermediate energy source.

The fundamental difference between this electric vehicle concept and other hybrid schemes is the take-off of power from the electricity source by an irreversible electric machine - a specialized low-power accelerating electric motor corresponding to the effective power density of the electricity source. For the electric passenger car and electric bus mentioned above, this corresponds to 15 and 20 kW. Thanks to the high rotation speed of the accelerating electric motor - up to 35,000 rpm for a passenger electric car and 25,000 rpm for an electric bus, which corresponds to the rotational speed of the accelerating superflywheels for the drives of these machines, their weight is very small, 15 and 30 kg, respectively (these are normal indicators for domestic aviation structures).

The energy source and the accelerating electric motor can be combined into one energy unit, similar in weight and dimensions to the engine and its systems removed from the chassis. The fuel tank and power system could in principle be retained with the addition of a converter to produce hydrogen from the fuel.

Thus, in the energy unit, the chemical energy of the fuel is converted into mechanical energy in the form of shaft rotation, in exactly the same way as in a heat engine. The clutch function is performed by a switch that connects the electric motor to the energy source.

Thus, at the request of the customer, any converter of chemical fuel energy into mechanical energy - a heat engine or a new energy unit - can be installed in the engine compartment. Next, everything, as in a regular car, the shaft of the energy unit is connected to the gearbox, in this case continuously variable. In the near future, such a gearbox will replace less efficient step ones even in ordinary cars. As a result, we get a new concept electric car that is as unified as possible with a conventional car.

What are the advantages of the new concept electric car? Compared to a car, this is incomparably higher fuel efficiency and environmental safety. Compared to the average efficiency of converting chemical energy into mechanical energy - about 10...15% for heat engines in cars (not to be confused with the efficiency of heat engines at optimal mode - 30% for gasoline engines and 40% for diesel engines), this efficiency is for fuel cells with a converter – 50%, and for oxygen-hydrogen fuel cells – 70%. Fuel cells have virtually no harmful emissions. Electric vehicles of the new concept have approximately the same advantages compared to battery electric vehicles, with the difference that the harmful emissions of the latter occur not in the car itself, but in power plants.

Compared to the most advanced designs of hybrid systems for electric vehicles with fuel cells and flywheel drives, for example, the scheme proposed and implemented by BMW, the advantage of the new concept is the smaller overall dimensions and higher efficiency of the electric vehicle. This is due to the fact that in the new concept the electric machine is not a universal, reversible one, but a highly specialized, accelerating one, loaded with almost constant power, almost an order of magnitude less than the maximum and at high rotation speeds. The second advantage is the absence of a complex differential mechanism with three friction clutches or brakes switching modes. The third advantage is that the process of regulating rotation speeds and torques from the superflywheel to the drive wheels is carried out not by an electric drive, but by a mechanical variator, which has the highest efficiency. This is especially true for the process of energy recovery during braking, as a result of which the kinetic energy of the car is transferred to the super flywheel. Neither in terms of the frequency completeness of the transfer of this energy, nor in terms of the efficiency of this process, the electric transmission cannot be compared with a mechanical variator. And the last advantage, which has already been mentioned - the almost traditional automobile circuit and comparable overall dimensions and mass indicators of the new energy unit with existing engines make it possible to easily replace one type of energy source with another, while obtaining the same as a car (with a conventional or hybrid engine circuit), as well as a hybrid, economical and dynamic electric car of a new concept.

In Fig. 1.3 shows a diagram of a new concept urban electric bus. This design gives the device greater flexibility than the one shown in Fig. 1.2 block diagram.

Figure 1.3. Scheme of a new concept city electric bus:
1 – current source; 2 – electric motor; 3 – reverse mechanism; 4 – power take-off; 5 – planetary disc variator; 6, 7 – cardan transmissions; 8 – main gear; 9 – bevel gear; 10 – superflywheel drive

Here is the superflywheel drive unit 10 , equipped with its own gearbox 9 , is located independently of the other units and is gently suspended on the frame to reduce the already small gyroscopic forces when the superflywheel is horizontal. With power take-off 4 and cardan transmissions 7 this block can communicate with the variator 5 both independently and in conjunction with an electric motor 2 . This electric motor can be coupled with a variator 5 and regardless of the superflywheel, and play the role of a full-fledged traction engine, mainly in stationary driving modes. Although the electric motor 2 in this case, the power and weight increases slightly, the energy intensity of the superflywheel storage device can be significantly reduced, actually up to 0.5 kWh. This makes it possible to produce a super flywheel from such a stable and relatively cheap material as carbon steel wire. Failure (rupture) of the superflywheel is so safe that a heavy protective casing, which significantly exceeds the mass of the flywheel itself, and is necessary for a flywheel made of carbon fiber, is not required. The variator allows the traction motor to operate in an effective range of torques and speeds, transmitting only part of the power required to move the electric bus, which is beneficial for its operation.

But be that as it may, electric cars are in demand. Moreover, there are places where they are completely unrivaled. Let's say, courses for the world's popular game of golf. Inventory and service personnel are transported in electric vehicles of a simplified design, sometimes without a roof, doors, with a lightweight, often shortened, body, without safety systems - everything that significantly increases the weight of the vehicles. Simplified vehicles are also good for transportation in enclosed spaces: in warehouses, in workshops where harmful emissions are undesirable. Such electric trolleys are widely used to transport tourists at resorts and national parks, but here it is more difficult for them to compete with cars.

Full-size cars designed for driving on city streets are finding it difficult to take root, although it is possible that the situation may change in the near future. And the reason for this must be sought... in the climate of the American state of California.

Exhaust gases from cars when exposed to sunlight form particularly toxic substances, the so-called smog. For the car-saturated Sunshine State, this is problem number one. Therefore, California's emissions standards are traditionally stricter than in other US states, not to mention Europe. Now a law has been adopted here on the gradual replacement of cars with electric vehicles: in 2003 there should be 10% of the total number of cars, and in 2010 - 15%.

Many leading automobile companies are working on electric cars, however, at exhibitions you will often see cars of little-known origin. When it comes to choosing a motor, designers have different opinions: they use both DC and AC motors, for example, asynchronous motors with special converters and a complex control system. The supply voltage is also different. Clear preference is given to nickel-cadmium batteries and lead batteries, which use a gel rather than a liquid electrolyte. Sometimes liquid cooling systems for engines and maintaining the thermal conditions of batteries are used.

The world's most popular electric car is made... in Poland. More than 200 thousand pieces have already been produced. Electric cars "Melex" are a simplified type, with 2, 4 and 6 seats, designed for the sports and entertainment industry (let's say golf), for warehouse work, as workshop vehicles. With an own weight of about 880 kg, the payload is 320, and with a trailer - more than 900. Cruising range - 70 km. The maximum speed - up to 23 km/h - reveals the purpose of the machine.

Another East German company, Transport-Sistemtechnik, has created 10 taxi prototypes. The five-seater car with a plastic body weighs only 600 kg, develops 80 km/h, and has a power reserve of 140 km. Batteries are nickel-metal hydride. The designers managed to make a relatively spacious car inside with a length of only 2.5 m. SAXI (that is, a taxi from Saxony) is promised to be mass-produced in two years (Fig. 1.4).

Figure 1.4. SAXI - taxi from Saxony.

In Japan, the Honda automobile company is financing a project to create a rental fleet of small electric and hybrid cars, including new technology for their operation. The implementation of this project, called the "Intelligent Community Vehicle System" ("Regional Intelligent Transport System") - ICVS, according to the developers, will significantly reduce the harmful impact of transport on the environment, reduce the likelihood of congestion and improve parking conditions in areas with high traffic intensity .

City Pal is a small front-wheel drive electric vehicle with dimensions of 3210 x 1645 x 1645 mm with a permanent magnet synchronous motor. Its maximum speed is 110 kilometers per hour, and its range on fully charged batteries is 130 kilometers. Despite its small size, the electric car has a spacious interior for the driver and passenger and a large trunk capacity. City Pal is equipped with air conditioning and a modern navigation system. In addition, it has equipment for automatic (unmanned) control and charging. The CityPal photo is shown in Fig. 1.5.

Figure 1.5. Double electric car City Pal.

The Step Deck is an ultra-miniature single-seat mini-electric car designed for driving in a densely populated city. Along the entire perimeter of the car body, there are bumper steps installed on the outside. Thanks to this design, Step Deck can be parked literally close to other cars in the most cramped conditions. Overall dimensions of the mini-electric car are 2400 x 1185 x 1690 mm. A parking lot designed for one regular passenger car can accommodate four such vehicles. The combined power plant with drive to the rear axle consists of a four-stroke internal combustion engine with a volume of 49 cm 3 with water cooling and a synchronous electric motor with permanent magnets, which allows it to reach speeds of up to 60 kilometers per hour (Fig. 1.6).

Figure 1.6. City single-seat mini-electric car Step Deck.

Honda electric vehicles involved in the ICVS system are not so easy to rent. To do this, you must first purchase a special magnetic IC card. With its help, at ICVS terminals you can select one of four types of carriages that is most suitable for a particular trip, arrange its rental, return the crew to the parking lot and pay for the rental in cash or from a bank account. In addition, the IC card is used to start the engine instead of regular car keys. The client himself is responsible for arranging the rental of an electric car with virtually no participation from terminal employees. It’s also convenient that you don’t have to return the crew to the same parking lot where you rented it; you can leave or change the electric car at any other ICVS terminal.

The ICVS control center receives all operational information about the location of a particular crew via special radio communications. If necessary, the operator, using internal radio communications and wide-angle laser radars, can automatically send up to four “unmanned” crews to the desired location. For this purpose, electric vehicles are equipped with magnetic and ultrasonic sensors that interact with induction cables laid under the terminal covering. Crews can enter, exit and park on command from the control center, also without driver participation. ICVS terminals provide automatic charging of batteries of all electric vehicles.

2.Light electric vehicles

Of all the types of electric vehicles, the most interesting from a practical point of view are light electric vehicles (LEVs) with a combined electric and, most often, muscular drive. According to the president of the North American company EV Global Motors, Lee Iacocca, soon an electric scooter, an electric scooter, an electric moped, a single or double mini-electric car, and most often, an electric bicycle will be in the garage of every American. According to the forecast, in the next 10 years, annual sales of individual electric vehicles in the world will be 6-10 billion dollars.

The global bicycle boom, which has covered almost all developed and developing countries, fully confirms the assumption that the coming century will be the century of the bicycle. According to the forecast of American experts, already in the first quarter of the 21st century, two-wheeled pedal cars will begin to displace cars and will gradually become the main means of transportation. The validity of such a forecast is confirmed by the overall picture of what is happening. In the USA and Germany - the undisputed world leaders in the number of passenger cars per inhabitant - more bicycles are sold annually than cars. An endless line of cyclists can be seen on the roads of Denmark, Holland, Sweden and other European countries. In Japan, almost every second resident regularly rides a bicycle, and Tokyo is literally packed with cyclists during rush hours. Every day, 500 million people cycle to work in China. Many European cities are banning cars in city centers and opening free bike rental points.

The unprecedented popularity of the bicycle is not accidental; it is largely due to the negative consequences of motorization. The fact is that the car, having conquered almost the entire planet, has become the main consumer of irreplaceable natural resources (oil), a polluter of land, water and air, and a “producer” of noise. More people die each year in car accidents than in other bloody wars. The main danger of a car, according to doctors, is that it has taught us not to move independently. People are beginning to understand this and, to combat physical inactivity, are switching to cycling.

The bicycle was the first invention that allowed a person to move faster and further using only his own muscles. But as soon as the two-wheeled car was born, inventors began to think about how to increase its power and speed. Since the second half of the last century, they have tried to equip the bicycle with an additional source of energy: a steam engine, an electric motor, a gasoline and even a jet engine. However, due to the heavy weight, bulkiness and a number of other shortcomings, none of them took root on the bicycle. At the same time, about a hundred years ago, the first electric bicycles were designed simultaneously with electric vehicles. But very soon both of them, unable to withstand the competition, gave way to cars, and were forgotten for a long time.

The rebirth of the electric bicycle happened literally before our eyes. In 1994, the Japanese company Yamaha began producing a new bicycle with an additional electric drive, and now the company's designers are developing models of electric bicycles of the third generation. Last year, 250 thousand of these two-wheeled “hybrids” were sold in Japan alone. Following Yamaha, the companies Honda, Panasonic, Sanyo, Mitsubishi and Suzuki began producing electric bicycles one after another. Experts predict that in a year or two more than a million Japanese will ride electric bicycles.

Today, electric bicycles are produced by all major bicycle companies in Asia, America and Europe. The Chinese authorities believe that electric bicycles can replace tens of thousands of smoking and rattling scooters and motorcycles and thereby significantly improve the transport situation. In Shanghai, for example, 15 bicycle battery charging centers and more than 100 battery replacement points have already been opened. In addition, it is planned to build a network of emergency charging stations, where any cyclist can quickly charge the battery by inserting a coin into the machine and inserting the charger plug into the socket of the electric charging column.

A modern electric bicycle is a completely comfortable, environmentally friendly vehicle that requires minimal maintenance costs and very little space in the garage and parking lot. As for the speed qualities of an electric bicycle, on a horizontal section of the road it can easily overtake an ordinary sports touring bicycle. And the point here is not the low engine power. An electric bicycle is specially designed so that the electric drive produces current only when the cyclist presses the pedals. As soon as he stops using his legs or accelerates to a speed of 20-24 km/h, the motor automatically turns off. If you want to go faster, pedal.

On so-called “quiet” electric bicycles, which reach speeds of up to 24 km/h, the electric drive performs an auxiliary function - with it the cyclist expends less effort, which is especially important when traveling long distances, in headwinds or uphill. The power of the electric motor does not exceed 250 W - this is a value commensurate with the power that the cyclist himself can develop for quite a long time. On an electric bicycle, one starts off using only the pedals. When the speed reaches 2-3 km/h, a special sensor on the drive wheel fork automatically turns on the motor. But there are electric bicycles with more complex sensors; they turn on the electric motor immediately after starting off.

In Switzerland and some US states, more powerful “fast” electric bicycles are being produced, the speed of which is not limited to 20-24 km/h. They are equipped with electric motors with a power of 400 W or more, operating independently of the pedals. Engine power and, accordingly, speed are regulated by the throttle handle. On a “fast” electric bicycle, the electric drive plays the main role, and the muscular drive plays an auxiliary role. The technical characteristics of such a machine are approximately the same as those of a light moped. You can ride a “fast” electric bicycle only in a protective helmet, with a license to drive a moped and a license plate (it is issued along with an insurance policy). The electric motor drive transmits force to the front or rear wheel of the bicycle using a gear reducer, chain drive or friction roller, which is pressed against the tire of the drive wheel (Fig. 2.1).

Figure 2.1. A “fast” electric bike from the American company EV Global Motors.

For several years now, Japanese, Taiwanese and German companies have been producing electric bicycles with motor wheels with a power of 200-250 W, which are built into the hub. The idea of ​​a motor-wheel is not new, but until recently this design was not widely used. The use of a motor-wheel on electric bicycles has made it possible to abandon a mechanical transmission, which means significantly increasing the efficiency of the electric drive. Experts believe that a motor-wheel controlled by an on-board microprocessor is the most successful and promising design for an electric bicycle drive.

Electric bicycles usually use nickel-cadmium batteries with a capacity of 7-10 ampere-hours, weighing 5-7 kilograms, and cheaper, but less durable and energy-intensive, sealed lead-zinc batteries with a jelly-like electrolyte. The battery charging time is 4-5 hours, the power reserve when fully charged is 20-30 kilometers or more. Although third-generation electric bicycles have already appeared, for example the Starcross from Yamaha, with a power reserve of over 40 kilometers. There are also new, still quite expensive nickel-metal hydride and nickel-hydrogen batteries that increase the range of an electric bike up to 50 kilometers without recharging.

In the USA, Japan, Germany and other most developed countries, an electric bicycle can already replace a second family car, which is usually used for trips of an average distance of 15 kilometers, for example, to work or shopping. It will be especially useful for people who are not very athletic and elderly, all those who are aware of the need for moderate but regular physical activity. In a garage, in a parking lot, or on the roadway, an electric bicycle takes up much less space than a small car. And most importantly, it does not pollute the environment.

Recently, Taiwan has been called the “electric transport island”. Five years ago there were only 67 electric mopeds and electric motorcycles here, but last year they sold about five thousand. The government's Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set a sales quota for these electric vehicles of at least 2% of sales of mopeds, scooters and motorcycles. According to forecasts, this year the sales volume of electric mopeds and electric motorcycles will triple and amount to 16 thousand units. The state compensates part of the costs of purchasing electric vehicles so that for the buyer their cost is comparable to the price of mopeds and scooters with an engine capacity of 50 cm3.

The electric bicycle boom can also be observed in Italy. In December 1998, in the historical center of the Italian capital, where millions of tourists visit every year, they began to create a fleet of rental electric scooters and a network of electric charging stations. This project is funded by the Municipality of Rome, the Ministry of the Environment, WWF and Italia Nostra. The Italian company Atala Rizzato is engaged in the construction of charging stations and the organization of rental of Lepton electric scooters. At the first stage, it is planned to open 85 stations for “slow” six- and seven-hour battery charging using 16-amp chargers and 30 stations for “fast” one- and a half-hour charging. The former are designed to simultaneously charge the batteries of four crews, while the latter - only two. All stations are being built in parking areas; they will be able to charge the batteries of both municipal and private electric scooters, electric bicycles and electric vehicles. The estimated cost of renting an electric scooter is 1.3-1.8 dollars per hour.

In Western countries, “quiet” electric bicycles, in which the motor only assists movement, are most popular among people over 40 years of age. They are most popular in Japan and European countries. Young people are attracted to high-speed models with a powerful electric drive and modern design. On “fast” electric bicycles, you can change the motor power, and you don’t have to constantly pedal. They dominate in the US and China. A photo of a “quiet” electric bicycle is shown in Fig. 2.2.

Figure 2.2. A “quiet” electric bicycle from the Taipei company “Elebike Co., Ltd” with a DC wheel motor with a power of 250 W, a voltage of 36 V and a lead-zinc battery with a capacity of 7 ampere-hours (in a plastic case on an inclined frame).

Prices for electric bicycles in Europe, Japan and the United States range from $1,000 to $2,000. The cheapest are in China and Taiwan, where they can be purchased for $200-350. It’s even cheaper to buy a regular bicycle and install an electric drive kit on it yourself or in a workshop: a motor, a battery, a charger, an electronic unit, a remote control and a control knob. One of the popular electric bicycle models is shown in Fig. 2.3.

Figure 2.3. Electric bicycle "Dracle" from the Japanese company "Panasonic"

According to experts, by 2003 the number of electric bicycles in the world will exceed two million.

According to materials provided by Honda, it will produce four basic vehicles: the City Pal two-seat electric vehicle, the Step Deck single-seat electric scooter, the Mon Pal single-seat electric scooter and the Raccon electric bicycle.

The single-seat electric scooter Mon Pal (Fig. 2.4) is very convenient for everyday trips over short distances. Its speed is no more than 6 kilometers per hour. The electric scooter is quite suitable for riding in pedestrian areas, on garden paths, in large shopping and exhibition spaces, which will certainly appeal to older people. Overall dimensions of Mon Pal - 1450 x 690 x 1080 mm (1625 mm with awning). The DC commutator motor is driven to the rear axle.

Figure 2.4. Electric scooter for seniors Mon Pal.

The Raccon 26LX-3B electric bicycle (Fig. 2.5) is good because it requires significantly less effort from the cyclist when riding long distances, on long climbs and against the wind than all other models. Its weight is 31 kg, overall dimensions are 1885 x 580 x 770-920 mm (depending on the height of the saddle). The electric bike is equipped with front and rear racks for 4 and 10 kg. The Raccon is equipped with a small 24V, 220W brushed DC motor and a compact 5A NiCad battery. . h the size of a not very thick A4 book. A fully charged battery, which is usually placed on the frame behind the front trunk, is enough to drive 27 kilometers while still illuminating the road with a 3.8-watt headlight. Magnetic speed sensors and an electronic control unit uniformly increase the power of the electric drive as the speed increases from 0 to 15 kilometers per hour and provide constant power in the speed range of 15-23 kilometers per hour. At higher speeds, the electric motor switches off automatically. If you want to go faster, pedal!

Figure 2.5. Electric bicycle Raccon from Honda.

3.Cars moving on rails

Among the numerous projects that are designed to solve the problem of congestion in the transport networks of megacities, proposals to send urban transport, including cars, on rails are increasingly common.

One of the most daring projects was presented by the Danish company RUF International. The transport system proposed by the Danes is a network of monorail roads along which public and private electric vehicles move.

Transport covers small sections of the route along ordinary roads, after which it enters the rails and is combined into unique trains.

The design of a car moving on rails is shown in Fig. 3.1

Figure 3.1. The design of a car moving on rails

Once on the rails, the transport does not need to be controlled - the driver sets the program and can sleep, read, access the Internet or watch TV - the information is transmitted to a certain “main dispatcher” and the automatic system will do everything itself, guided by the readings installed everywhere, including underground, sensors

If necessary, the driver will be able to take control again. It is assumed that the speed of travel on the rails will be 120 km/h.

According to the RUF International project, the road network will consist of 25-kilometer rail sections with special “crossovers” every five kilometers so that some drivers can join the “train”, while others can turn or go off the rails (Fig. 3.2-3.3). The maximum speed between “transitions” (150 km/h) when approaching junctions is automatically reduced to 30 km/h.

Figure 3.2. Transition to the circle line

Figure 3.3. Transition from rails to road surface

Sections of the track without rails are also automated: sensors installed underground form a kind of fairway, so the driver does not have to control his car at all.

Energy for electric vehicles is supplied directly along the monorail - this provides power while moving on the “train”, and charges the batteries for short trips on regular roads.

Upon arrival at the destination, the driver gets out of the car and goes about his business - the automation itself will send the car to the nearest parking lot, from where the owner can call him to continue the journey.

There is another option - without any parking, when everyone can use the first car they come across. As a protection against vandalism, the developers propose the following scheme: when entering the car, the driver “presents” some kind of identification card, which the car identifies.

The car “remembers” the person who last drove it, and the new driver will have to assess his condition upon entering the car. Only in case of “acceptance” of the car is the new driver identified and becomes its owner for a while.

Vehicles for the RAF transport system can be anything - a car, a truck, a bus - but to ride on rails they all must have a V-shaped channel running along the bottom of the vehicle body (Fig. 3.4).

Figure 3.4. Rail design

The “slot” runs down the middle and inside divides the interior into two parts. The developers suggest using the “bump” as an armrest or “place for a child.”

The monorail system is intended for large cities, but the authors of the project have not forgotten about commuters: a hybrid transport with electric and fuel engines is provided. For example, a public commuter transport called Maxi-RUF is a bus that can carry ten passengers, not counting the driver.

The company has been working on its concept since 1988. RUF International has 16 sponsors, including not a single automaker, but the Danish branch of Siemens and the Danish ministries of energy and environment.

The British are working on a similar, but much more realistic project. A monorail project called ULTra (Urban Light Transport) by Advanced Transport Systems will be implemented for the first time in 2004. And in January 2002, an experimental branch was launched near Bristol in the city of Cardiff (Fig. 3.5). If the test results are found satisfactory, ULTra networks will be built first in Cardiff and then in other UK cities.

Figure 3.5. Photo of the experimental branch in Cardiff

ULTra is a form of Personal Rapid Transit (PRT). Essentially, this is a monorail along which small, fully automated trolleys move - an above-ground metro, only without drivers and, in fact, trains.

Small capsule-like trolleys designed for several people will move along the monorail at a speed of 25 km/h.

The ULTra project, which is also called a “driverless taxi,” was developed by Advanced Transport Systems together with specialists from the University of Bristol.

The first test "line", built in Cardiff, along which 30 "capsules" will move, will be 1.5 km long. In a developed network, the number of trolleys will increase to 120. The movement of each “capsule” will be controlled by a central system using various sensors.

Passengers will board and disembark at special stations. It should be noted that the “capsules” do not stop on the main route, but approach the stations along separate tracks.

Upon entering, the passenger will have to insert a smart card into the “receiver”, on which the route of his trip will be indicated. It is possible that this card will also be used to pay for travel (the tariff is the same as for travel on a bus).

The developers claim that, firstly, their electric transport does not pollute the environment, secondly, it is lightweight (the weight of the trolley is 800 kg), thirdly, they managed to “minimize the visual intrusion” into the architectural appearance of cities and the environment, and, finally, ULTra is a safe transport.

Indeed, at a speed of 25 km/h (and 5 km/h near stops), little can happen. However, each trolley is equipped with a special "detection system" that will automatically stop the "capsule" if there is an obstacle ahead.

A breakdown (the probability of any of them, according to the creators, is extremely small) of one of the trolleys will not block the entire transport system, but the built-in “control system” will transmit a signal to the “Center”.

The system is intended exclusively for cities and, according to the developers, will not replace buses and cars, but will only be an addition to existing types of public transport.

4.Monocar

There are two main types of vehicles in the modern world.

CARS have higher comfort, safety, load capacity, etc., but one cannot fail to note the fact that the existing concept of a four-wheeled vehicle (car) has not changed since the advent of the cart and no longer meets modern requirements for maneuverability, efficiency, level emissions into the environment, etc.

MOTORCYCLES are distinguished by their extreme simplicity and reliability of design. This is a frame with a saddle, an engine and wheels, the front of which is rotary. They have high maneuverability and maneuverability, but practically do not protect the driver from weather conditions, do not ensure his safety, and therefore are almost replaced by cars.

But there is a concept that combines the advantages of motorcycles and cars. It is a vehicle with a car body and a two-wheel chassis design. Such a car (monocar) can have the comfort, carrying capacity and safety of a car and the maneuverability, efficiency and cross-country ability of a motorcycle.

The stability of a motorcycle depends on the balance of the forces acting on it. A motorcycle can be stable only if the fulcrum and resultant forces coincide. In linear motion there is only one such force. This is the force of gravity applied to the center of mass and directed vertically downwards. It has no deviations from the fulcrum, therefore, there is no overturning force.

When moving in a circle, the machine is also subject to a centrifugal force, directed outward and creating an overturning moment. To keep the machine in balance, the resultant of these forces must pass through the fulcrum. In motorcycles, balance is achieved either by the driver leaning in the direction opposite to the overturning moment, or by turning the steering wheel in the direction the vehicle is leaning. That is, either the center of gravity deviates until it coincides with the fulcrum, or the fulcrum deviates towards the center of gravity. In this case, balance must be maintained with high precision, otherwise the motorcycle will inevitably tip over in the direction of the greatest acting force. Therefore, the stability of a motorcycle when moving in a circle depends on:

1. Motorcycle speed

2. Turning radius

3.Motorcycle lean angle

4. Front wheel offset offset

The maximum tilt angle of the machine depends on the design and shape of the vehicle body. There is a relationship between driving speed and safe turning radius.

V 2 = g * R* cot a,

where V is the speed of the motorcycle, m/sec,

g - free fall acceleration, 9.8 m/s 2 ,

R - turning radius of the motorcycle, m,

ctg a - cotangent of the angle of inclination.

When these conditions are met, the front wheel must be turned towards the center of rotation.

If you want to go through a corner at a higher speed, the motorcycle must lean at a greater angle when entering the turn and the front wheel of the motorcycle must be turned in the direction opposite to the turn. This is done to further shift the motorcycle's fulcrum towards the center of gravity. If this is not enough to maintain balance, then the driver deviates the body from the center of rotation until the resultant forces coincide with the fulcrum. For a single-track vehicle, such maneuvers may not be possible due to the wider body.

It is mistakenly believed that the motorcycle is influenced by the gyroscopic moment of the wheels. Its influence is insignificant, since with a tire and rim mass of 3 kg, a rotation speed of 833 rpm and a steering speed of 0.2 rpm, the gyroscopic moment of the wheel is equal to: 0.35 kg. At the same time, a deviation of the center of gravity or fulcrum of the motorcycle by 10 cm, with a height of the center of gravity of 100 cm and a mass of the motorcycle and the driver of 140 kg, creates a deflection force of 14 kg.

Thus, when turning, the additional deviation of the center of gravity from the fulcrum in kilograms must be equal to the restoring force of the gyroscopic moment of the flywheel in kilograms.

Probably everyone has seen how in a motorcycle race a motorcyclist, unable to make a turn, slides along the ground towards a skid, and then his motorcycle tumbles. This can happen to every two-wheeled vehicle. A distinctive feature of any two-wheeled vehicle is that when cornering, it can lean towards the center of the turn. This allows you to take turns without skidding with great acceleration. But only until the centrifugal force exceeds the friction force. And then departure to the sidelines is inevitable.

For two-wheeled vehicles, there is a certain dependence of the maximum tilt angle on the turning radius. The tilt angle of the monocar depends on the design features, for example, it is limited by the dimensions of the body (35 degrees). If you turn the steering wheel too steeply, the monocar will lie on its side and slide along the road towards the skid. A monocar will not be able to tumble like a motorcycle because of the flywheel. It has too much gyroscopic moment of force. Most likely, it will rotate around the point of contact, and even then it is unlikely. The driver and passenger, of course, will remain inside. They will probably not have a pleasant feeling, but they will be able to avoid any damage or injury. They won’t even be able to dangle inside the body, since the vector of centrifugal force will only press them into the seat.

On the protruding part of the body on the left and right you can install a small platform - a support. Then, in the event of a sharp turn, the monocar will lie not on the body, but on the support. This will allow you to literally and figuratively make a SHARP U-turn.

To maintain the balance of single-track vehicles, you can use a flywheel, which is also used to recover energy during acceleration and braking. The flywheel's task is to compensate for possible deviations that may arise. The restoring force of the flywheel depends on its rotation speed. When the rotation speed of a flywheel with a horizontal axis of rotation decreases, it begins to deviate from the vertical by an angle determined by the resultant force of gravity and the restoring gyroscopic moment.

At a stop, the gyroscopic moment of the flywheel will be maximum, keeping the car upright, and as speed increases, it will gradually decrease, allowing the car to tilt to make turns, since the energy of the flywheel must be spent on moving the car.

In some designs, the axis of rotation of the flywheel was horizontal and the flywheel rotated in the same direction as the wheels. Tilt of such a flywheel to the left causes the machine to additionally turn to the left. This can make cornering easier, but can also serve as a destabilizing factor.

The conclusion follows from this: if the direction of rotation of a flywheel with a horizontal axis of rotation coincides with the direction of rotation of the wheels, then such a machine is more maneuverable, but less stable. And, accordingly, vice versa.

If the axis of rotation of the flywheel is vertical, then it should be tilted back and forth. But with a vertical axis, the gyroscopic effect can introduce additional skidding into a turn (like the propeller of a single-axis helicopter), and it will be necessary to install a second flywheel with the opposite direction of rotation. In addition, the vertical axis flywheel has a destabilizing factor. When driving uphill or downhill, the car will be additionally affected by a gyroscopic moment, deflecting the car to the right or left. To compensate for this effect, a compensating steering deflection or installation of an additional flywheel with the opposite direction of rotation will be required.

On the gyrocar P.P. Shilovsky, the flywheel was mounted on a frame that allowed its axis to be deflected, thereby restoring the balance of the machine. The frame deviated based on the signal from the roll sensors. Instead of the frame, you can additionally turn or tilt the front wheel until the fulcrum coincides with the center of gravity. You can also turn the wheel based on a signal from the roll sensor.

But if it is possible to find the exact relationship between the forces affecting the car, then it will be possible to do without roll sensors, etc.

Dependencies:

Deviation from the fulcrum depends on the angle of rotation of the front wheel

· the angle of rotation of the front wheel depends on the turning radius of the machine

· turning radius depends on vehicle speed

The speed of rotation of the flywheel depends on the speed of the machine

The restoring force of the flywheel depends on its rotation speed

The stability and maneuverability of the machine depends on the direction of rotation of the flywheel with a horizontal axis

Engine power depends on the maximum speed

Using a flywheel on a car has the following advantages:

Reducing fuel consumption by half due to energy recovery (return)

· reduction of required engine power up to 40%

· the ability to operate the engine at the optimum point

· elimination of various engine starting systems and idle mode

more efficient (skidless) braking

Specific fuel consumption is minimal when the engine operates at approximately 80% power and is 3-4 times higher at 10% percent. However, it is this 10% percent that is required in city traffic most of the time. In city driving, most of the energy is also consumed during frequently alternating acceleration and braking. To reduce such costs, it is most realistic to use hybrid engines, which are a flywheel in combination with an internal combustion engine or an electric motor.

The engine, operating in maximum efficiency mode, “pumps” energy into it, maintaining the rotation speed in a certain range. The energy needed to move the car is taken through a continuously variable transmission. When braking, the vehicle's kinetic energy is transferred back to the flywheel.

Monocar allows you to reduce energy losses through the following solutions:

Machine weight. To reduce weight, you can significantly simplify and lighten the design by removing some components and assemblies. A monocar may not require a high-power (and weight) engine, gearbox, radiator, starter, generator, two-wheel suspension, transmission and much more. A monocar can be made approximately two times lighter than a conventional car.

Aerodynamic resistance. Creating a more streamlined body shape. A modern car has an aerodynamic drag coefficient C x =0.4. If you try to make a three-seater body in the form of a teardrop and place two people in the wide part and one in the back in the narrow part, you can get a coefficient C x = 0.2 or even less. But such a shape can only be used on a two-wheeled car, since four wheels will still require a rectangular shape with all the ensuing consequences.

For most modern cars it is 0.4. In a monocar, thanks to the more streamlined design of the two-wheeled body, it can be equal to 0.2 or even less.

The dependence of power on speed is shown in Fig. 4.1.

Figure 4.1. Dependence of power on speed

F = C x * S m * P * V 2

where F is the resistance force of the medium, H

C x - aerodynamic drag coefficient,

S m - midsection, m 2

P is the density of the medium,

V - speed, m/s

Which is 0.2 * 1.22 * 1.2 * 767 = 224 N at 100 km/h

For a run of 100 km, 224 * 100,000 = 22,400,000 J will be required, which is a power of 6.2 kW. (8.4 hp) at 100 km/h or 3.2 kW at 72 km/h or 833 W at 36 km/h

Engine efficiency. It is advisable to abandon the internal combustion engine with an efficiency of 18-20% and use an electric motor (90% efficiency). The use of a flywheel can significantly reduce the required engine power.

Energy recovery. The use of a flywheel for recovery (accumulation) of braking energy with subsequent return during acceleration. If in conventional cars this energy is spent only on heating the brake pads, then with the use of a flywheel it is possible to significantly (almost 2 times) reduce fuel consumption compared to driving in city mode.

Road resistance. A two-wheeled monocar will require significantly less energy to overcome road resistance.

4000H * 0.02 = 80H

For a run of 100 km, 80 * 100,000 = 8,000,000 J will be required, which is a power of 2.2 kW/hour. (3 hp)

The design of the machine is shown in Fig. 4.2.

Figure 4.2. Monocar design

A flywheel is located in the center of the car between the driver and passenger seats. Above the flywheel is a joystick-type control handle. Directly in front of the flywheel is the front suspension mounting unit. The rear passenger seat is located exactly centrally between the front seats. There is a small trunk behind the rear seat. Under the trunk is the rear wheel suspension.

The body is a structure made of a metal frame and hanging cladding elements. Longitudinally in the center of the machine there is a power frame with a flywheel and wheel suspensions. The body is two-door, with the doors opening vertically relative to the middle of the windshield. The car has 2 small trunks on the sides of the front wheel well. There are no luggage racks above the rear wheel well in order to improve the aerodynamics of the body.

The solution to many problems of a monocar will be the use of so-called motor-wheels. Moreover, the use of three motor-wheels of the same type is technologically justified. Two directly in the wheels and one as a flywheel. They will differ only in the maximum rotation speed and rotor mass. For a flywheel, the rotor mass must be at least 20 kg.

Thus, the entire kinematics of the machine will consist of only two wheels, a flywheel and an electronic control unit. The control unit is needed to transfer energy from the flywheel to the wheels and back.

Japanese companies have designed lightweight brushless DC electric motors with rare-earth magnets with maximum efficiency of up to 98% and highly efficient microprocessor control systems. These low-speed motors are built directly into the hubs of the drive wheels. This made it possible to abandon the mechanical transmission and thereby increase the overall drive efficiency to 96-97%. Motor-wheels with a power of 200-250 W are being mass-produced for light electric vehicles - for example, for electric bicycles, which are already appearing on the roads of the world.

Advantages of using motor wheels on vehicles:

· the layout of the car is improved due to a fairly free choice of the installation location of the motor-wheel relative to other components of the car;

· the total weight of the electric drive units (not only the motor-wheels) is reduced compared to the mass of the hydromechanical drive units;

· the desired distribution of the vehicle’s mass along the axes is obtained due to the ability to vary the vehicle’s base;

· the number of mechanical transmission parts and assemblies subject to intense wear during operation is reduced, which increases the reliability of the system as a whole;

· the ability to implement high power with one motor-wheel, which allows you to increase the vehicle's load capacity without increasing the number of drive wheels;

· the possibility of stepless or, in extreme cases, two-stage regulation of traction force;

· braking on long, large slopes is highly effective and reliable thanks to the use of an electric brake

The machine is controlled by a joystick-type handle installed between the driver and passenger seats. The handle also contains buttons for turning on the headlight, turns, signal, etc. Control is carried out by changing the gear ratio of the variator. When the handle is tilted “forward-backward” and “left-right”, the machine braking-accelerates and turns, respectively. When the handle is tilted forward as much as possible, an additional brake grip on the rear wheel may be activated.

The control panel has small dimensions, digital LED display and can be placed in any convenient place, for example on the rear view mirror in the center of the car. Instead of an indication, you can use a speech synthesizer.

You can display:

1. Machine speed;

2. Turns (can be replaced with lights on the rear-view mirrors);

3. Position of doors (hatches) and trunks (open or closed).

In a monocar, it is better to move the control knob and instrument panel to the side. Since there is no longer a traumatic obstacle in front of the driver and passenger, it is possible to use a vector safety system. In such a system, the seat has the ability, in the event of a frontal collision, to roll forward into a free zone while simultaneously tilting back. After an impact, the chair on shock absorbers returns to its original position. This system is more reliable than seat belts and airbags. In case of particularly strong impacts, it is even possible to eject the chair through the windshield until the inertia of the impact is completely extinguished.

Side impacts for a machine with a working flywheel are safe, since they cannot lead to a rollover. The machine, like a pendulum, will only swing around a vertical axis. And when driving along the side of the road or on a slope, the car will still maintain a vertical position of the body. If a conventional car tips over on a very steep side slope, the monocar will only slide down the slope, maintaining an upright position.

With uniform movement, the chair is in a vertical position. When braking sharply, the chair rolls forward along the guides, simultaneously turning to a horizontal position. In this case, the angle of inclination of the chair depends on the braking force and when this force decreases, the chair returns to its original position.

The car can provide several methods of braking:

Kinetic. The main method. This is when the kinetic energy of the car is converted into kinetic energy of the flywheel.

Electrodynamic. Electricity from the motor wheels can be extinguished using a ballast resistor. For example, direct it to an electric heater.

Differential. If the front wheel motor is turned on in antiphase with the rear one, it will rotate in the opposite direction until the machine and the front wheel come to a complete stop.

Stepper. The wheel motor is a stepper motor. You can set the rotation frequency of the rotor magnetic field as low as desired, down to zero. This will actually stop the rotor.

Frictional. If you place a friction pad between the rotor and the stator, and suspend the rotor in a magnetic field or on an air cushion (gas bearing), then when the bearing is turned off, the rotor with the entire mass of the machine will rest on the stator. This is similar to a conventional disc or drum brake.

Mechanical. If you change the suspension height, the car can lie on the bottom and brake with protruding parts of the body. This way you can brake even on ice.

The headlight is located under the front wheel cover. It can be lowered into a niche from the front trunk. The headlight can also rotate 360° horizontally, providing illumination when turning and reversing.
The headlight is made in the form of a cylinder, in the center of the optical axis of which there is a light source. Part of the cylinder is made transparent, the rest is covered with a reflective layer. A red light filter can be installed in the rear part, which, when turning the headlight while moving backwards, will shine forward, acting as a brake light.

The car uses a dependent cable suspension system and a compensating shock absorber. The front and rear suspensions are connected by a cable in such a way that the load on the front wheel, which deflects the wheel upward, is compensated by the deflection of the rear wheel downward and vice versa. Half the weight of the machine is used as shock-absorbing force. By changing the length of the cable, you can adjust the height of the car until it lowers to the bottom when parked or in emergency braking mode.

Technical characteristics of the monocar:

Length - 4000 mm.

Width - 1500 mm.

Height - 1500 mm.

Base - 3000 mm.

Ground clearance - 350 mm.

Number of places - 3 people.

Number of body doors - 2.

Loading capacity - 200-250 kg.

The drive is probably full.

Suspension - dependent.

Low fuel consumption (no more than 1 liter per 100 km).

Reduced CO2 and CN emissions.

Light weight (no more than 400 kg).

Simplicity and reliability of design.

Easy to operate and maintain.

High maneuverability (turning radius about 4 m).

Low aerodynamic drag coefficient.

Low cost

5. Unmanned aircraft

“UAVs” vary in weight (from devices weighing half a kilogram, comparable to a model aircraft, to 10-15-ton giants), altitude and flight duration. Unmanned aerial vehicles weighing up to 5 kg (micro class) can take off from any small platform and even from hand, rise to a height of 1-2 kilometers and stay in the air for no more than an hour. They are used as reconnaissance aircraft, for example, to detect military equipment and terrorists in the forest or mountains. Micro-class "drones" weighing only 300-500 grams, figuratively speaking, can look out the window, so they are convenient to use in urban environments.

Next to “micro” are “mini” class unmanned aerial vehicles weighing up to 150 kg. They operate at an altitude of up to 3-5 km, the flight duration is 3-5 hours. The next class is "midi". These are heavier multi-purpose devices weighing from 200 to 1000 kg. The flight altitude reaches 5-6 km, duration - 10-20 hours.

And, finally, “maxi” - devices weighing from 1000 kg to 8-10 tons. Their ceiling is 20 km, flight duration is more than 24 hours. Supermaxi class cars will probably appear soon. It can be assumed that their weight will exceed 15 tons. Such “heavy trucks” will carry a huge amount of equipment for various purposes on board and will be able to perform a wide range of tasks.

If we recall the history of unmanned aerial vehicles, they first appeared in the mid-1930s. These were remote-controlled aerial targets used in target practice. After World War II, more precisely, already in the 1950s, aircraft designers created unmanned reconnaissance aircraft. It took another 20 years to develop impact vehicles. In the 1970s - 1980s, the design bureaus of P. O. Sukhoi, A. N. Tupolev, V. M. Myasishchev, A. S. Yakovlev, N. I. Kamov dealt with this topic. From the Tupolev Design Bureau came the unmanned reconnaissance aircraft "Yastreb", "Strizh" and the "Flight", which is still in service today, as well as the strike "Korshun", created jointly with the Kulon Research Institute. The Yakovlev Design Bureau, where the devices were developed, was quite successfully engaged in unmanned aircraft. mini" class. The most successful of them was the "Bee" complex, which is still in service.

In the 1970s, research work was launched in the USSR to create unmanned aircraft with high altitude and flight duration. They were dealt with by the Design Bureau of V. M. Myasishchev, where they developed the maxi-class Orel vehicle. Then it came only to the layout, but almost 10 years later the work was resumed. It was assumed that the upgraded device would be able to fly at an altitude of up to 20 km and stay in the air for 24 hours. But then the reform crisis came, and in the early 1990s the Eagle program was closed due to lack of funding. Around the same time and for the same reasons, work on the Rhombus unmanned aerial vehicle was curtailed. This aircraft, unique in its design, created jointly with the "NII DAR" with the participation of the developer of the "Resonance" radar system, Chief Designer E.I. Shustov, was a split biplane of four wings, arranged in the shape of a rhombus, into which large-sized antennas were mounted, serving radar station. Its mass was about 12 tons, and the payload reached 1.5 tons.

After the first wave of “drone” development in the 1970s and 1980s, there was a long lull. The army was equipped with expensive manned aircraft. Large funds were allocated for them. This determined the choice of development topics. True, all these years the Kazan experimental design bureau "Sokol" has been actively working on "drones". OKB Sokol has essentially become a specialized enterprise for the production of unmanned aircraft systems. The main direction is unmanned aerial targets, on which combat operations of various military complexes and ground services, including air defense systems, are practiced.

Today, mini- and midi-class unmanned aerial vehicles are represented quite widely. Many countries can produce them, since small laboratories or institutes can cope with this task. As for maxi-class aircraft, their creation requires the resources of an entire aircraft manufacturing complex.

What are the advantages of unmanned aerial vehicles? Firstly, they are on average an order of magnitude cheaper than manned aircraft, which need to be equipped with life support systems, protection, air conditioning... Finally, pilots need to be trained, and this costs a lot of money. As a result, it turns out that the absence of a crew on board significantly reduces the costs of completing a particular task.

Secondly, lightweight (compared to manned aircraft) unmanned aerial vehicles consume less fuel. It seems that a more realistic prospect is opening up for them with a possible transition to cryogenic fuel.

Third, unlike manned aircraft, unmanned aircraft do not require concrete-surfaced airfields. It is enough to build a dirt runway just 600 meters long. (“UAVs” take off with the help of a catapult and land “like an airplane,” like fighters on aircraft carriers.) This is a very serious argument, since 70% of airfields in Ukraine need reconstruction, and the rate of repair today is one airfield per year.

The main criterion for choosing the type of aircraft is cost. Thanks to the rapid development of computer technology, the price of the “filling” - the on-board computers of drones - has dropped significantly. The first devices used heavy and bulky analog computers. With the introduction of modern digital technology, their “brains” have become not only cheaper, but also smarter, more compact and lighter. This means that more equipment can be taken on board, and the functionality of unmanned aircraft depends on it.

If we talk about the military aspect, then unmanned aerial vehicles are used where a pilot can be dispensed with in a reconnaissance operation or air combat. At the IX international conference on “drones”, held in France in 2001, the idea was voiced that in 2010-2015, combat operations would be reduced to a war of automated systems, that is, to a confrontation between robots.

Sukhoi Design Bureau specialists analyzed the development of scientific and technical programs existing in the world to create “drones” and discovered a persistent tendency to increase their size and weight, as well as altitude and flight duration. Devices with greater weight can stay in the air longer, rise higher and “see” further. "Maxi" carry on board more than 500 kg of payload, which allows them to solve large-volume tasks with the best quality.

The analysis showed that unmanned aircraft of the "maxi" and "supermaxi" classes are in demand today more than ever. Apparently, they can change the balance of power in the global aircraft market. So far, this niche has been developed only by American designers, who began working on “maxi”-class “drones” 10 years before us and managed to create several very good aircraft. The most popular of them is the Global Hawk (Fig. 5.1): it rises to a height of up to 20 km, weighs 11.5 tons, and has a cruising flight duration of more than 24 hours. The designers of this machine abandoned piston engines and equipped it with two turbojet engines. It was after the Global Hawk was shown at the Le Bourget air show in 2001 that the struggle to capture a new sector of the market began in the West.

Figure 5.1. . American unmanned aircraft "maxi" class "Global Hawk"

Even during the creation of the first unmanned maxi-class aircraft “Eagle” and “Romb”, a concept was developed according to which they began to build unmanned vehicles that would provide the best conditions for placing a payload in them. On the Rhombus, for example, they were able to combine large antenna units measuring 15-20 m with aircraft elements. The result was a “flying antenna”. Today, what is essentially being created is a flying platform for surveillance equipment. By connecting the payload with on-board systems, you can get a full-fledged integrated complex, maximally equipped with radio-electronic equipment (Fig. 5.2). This will be a qualitatively new type of aviation technology - a stratospheric platform for solving tasks that are either beyond the capabilities of low- and medium-altitude manned and unmanned aircraft, or require unreasonably high costs when performed by satellite constellations.

Figure 5.2. Multi-purpose unmanned aerial vehicle "Proteus" made in the USA

The whole world has already realized the benefits and savings that unmanned aerial vehicles can bring not only in the military, but also in the civilian sphere. Their capabilities largely depend on such a parameter as flight altitude. Today the limit is 20 km, and in the future up to 30 km. At this altitude, an unmanned aircraft can compete with a satellite. By monitoring everything that happens over an area of ​​about a million square kilometers, it itself becomes a kind of “aerodynamic satellite.” Unmanned aircraft can take over the functions of a satellite constellation and perform them in real time within an entire region.

To take photographs and films from space or observe any object, you need 24 satellites, but even then information from them will arrive once an hour. The fact is that the satellite is above the object of observation for only 15-20 minutes, and then leaves its visibility zone and returns to the same place, having completed a revolution around the Earth. During this time, the object leaves the given point, since the Earth rotates, and appears there again only after 24 hours. Unlike a satellite, an unmanned aircraft constantly accompanies the observation point. Having worked at an altitude of about 20 km for more than 24 hours, he returns to base, and another one takes his place in the sky. Another car is in reserve. This is a huge savings, since unmanned aircraft are orders of magnitude cheaper than satellites.

Unmanned aircraft can compete with satellites in the creation of telecommunications networks and navigation systems.

“UAVs” can be entrusted with continuous round-the-clock surveillance of the Earth’s surface in a wide range of frequencies. Using them, it is possible to create a country's information field, covering the control and management of air and water transport, since these machines are able to take on the functions of ground, air and satellite locators (the joint information from them gives a complete picture of what is happening in the sky, on water and land).

Unmanned aerial vehicles will help solve a whole range of scientific and applied problems related to geology, ecology, meteorology, zoology, agriculture, climate studies, mineral exploration... They will monitor the migration of birds, mammals, schools of fish, changes in weather conditions and ice conditions on rivers, monitoring the movement of ships, the movement of vehicles and people, conduct aerial, photo and film photography, radar and radiation reconnaissance, multispectral surface monitoring, penetrating up to 100 meters deep.

The world market's need for unmanned aircraft systems with high altitude and flight duration is presented in the form of a diagram in Fig. 5.3.

Figure 5.3. Global market needs for unmanned aircraft systems with high altitude and flight duration.

Areas of application of civil unmanned aircraft

DETECTION OF SMALL OBJECTS:

air

surface

· ground

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL:

· in hard-to-reach areas

· in case of natural disasters and accidents

· on temporary air routes in national aviation

MARINE SHIPPING CONTROL:

search and detection of vessels

· prevention of emergency situations in ports

· control of maritime borders

· control of fishing rules

DEVELOPMENT OF REGIONAL AND INTERREGIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS:

· communication systems, including mobile

· television and radio broadcasting

· rebroadcast

· navigation systems

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND CONTROL OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE:

· aerial photography (cartography)

· inspection of compliance with contractual obligations

· ("open sky" mode)

· control of hydro- and weather conditions

· control of actively emitting objects control of power lines

ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL:

· radiation control

gas chemical control

· monitoring the condition of gas and oil pipelines

· polling of seismic sensors

ENSURING AGRICULTURAL WORK AND GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION:

· determination of soil characteristics

· mineral exploration

· subsurface (up to 100 m) sounding of the Earth

OCEANOLOGY:

· Ice reconnaissance

· Monitoring sea waves

· search for schools of fish

6.Solar transport

Electric cars, solar cars, solar bicycles, electric boats with solar panels - all these environmentally friendly vehicles appeared only 15-20 years ago. Over the years, electric cars have ceased to be rare. They are finding increasing use, especially in large cities oversaturated with vehicles. As for solar cars, today they can be seen on the road very rarely. This is a very expensive pleasure. Meanwhile, solar water transport - small vessels driven by solar energy - is becoming increasingly popular and affordable. They are most suitable for boating and fishing.

Sunmobiles are mostly unique cars. Their design uses original technical solutions and the latest materials. Hence the very high price. For example, the two-seater sunmobile "Dream" (Fig. 6.1) cost the Japanese automobile company Honda $2 million. But the money was not spent in vain. He covered the 3000 km long Trans-Australian Rally in 1996 at an average speed of almost 90 km/h, and reached 135 km/h on the high-speed straight section. The “Dream” record has not yet been broken by anyone.

Figure 6.1. Sunmobile-record holder "Dream"

A sunmobile is an electric vehicle equipped with photoelectric converters (solar batteries) of sufficiently high power, in which light energy is converted into electric current that powers the traction motor and charges the batteries.

The construction of solar cars and testing them in races gradually took shape into a new technical sport - “brainsport”. In essence, this is a competition of intellects between the creators of solar cars. They are used to test the parameters of future vehicles. In order for a solar car with a maximum power of solar panels and an electric motor of only 1.5-2 kW to compete with a car, it is necessary to use the lightest and strongest structural materials, highly efficient electric drive systems, and the latest achievements in aerodynamics, solar and electrical engineering, electronics and other sciences.

Experts believe that solar transport will seriously compete with automobile transport when the efficiency of affordable solar cells (photovoltaic converters) reaches 40-50%. For now, their efficiency is only 10-12%. In order for solar cars with a solar battery power of 1.5-2 kW to “catch up” with cars with engines 100 times more powerful, it is necessary to use lightweight and durable structural materials, efficient electric drive systems, advances in aerodynamics, solar and electrical engineering, electronics and other sciences. The designs of vehicles of the future are being tested at the solar car rally.

Solar vehicles have achieved the minimum aerodynamic drag coefficient for ground crews (0.1). The experience of the General Motors concern in developing the record-breaking solar car "Sunracer" (Fig. 6.2) was used in the design of the electric car "Impact", mass production of which began in 1996. Its speed reaches 130 km / h, it accelerates to 100 km/h in 9 seconds and runs 100 km on conventional lead-acid batteries.

Figure 6.2. Sunmobile Sunraycer

Lightweight brushless DC motors with magnets made of rare earth metals and efficiency up to 98%, as well as efficient microprocessor control systems, have been designed specifically for solar vehicles. In 1993, for the first time, low-speed engines were built directly into the hubs of the drive wheels on three solar cars - the leaders of the Trans-Australian races. The idea of ​​a motor-wheel, in itself not new, in solar cars made it possible to abandon the transmission and increase the drive efficiency to 96-97%. In 1996, 12 such designs already participated in the Trans-Australian rally, and the Honda company, inspired by the success of its “Dream”, began serial production of electric bicycles with a motor-wheel. Well-known tire manufacturers - Michelin, Bridgestone, Dunlop - are developing new materials and treads for solar car tires. Tires have already been created that, with good road grip, have the lowest rolling resistance coefficient - only 0.007. The Michelin company produces similar energy-saving tires for production cars.

Low-power solar panels on ordinary cars condition the air in the cabins, recharge starting batteries in parking lots, and power radio and television equipment.

However, there is solar transport, which is very likely to become popular and accessible in the very near future. We are talking about small vessels, boats, cutters, catamarans, yachts and other water vehicles powered by solar energy. It was on water, long before the advent of the electric car, that the first electrically powered vehicle was tested. In 1833, a boat with two electric motors and 27 galvanic batteries climbed several kilometers along the Neva. It belonged to the German engineer Moritz Jacobi, who worked in St. Petersburg. But due to the low energy capacity of the batteries, the experiments had to be stopped.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, small vessels with internal combustion engines appeared. The energy intensity of hydrocarbon fuels was significantly higher than what galvanic batteries could provide. Boats and boats with powerful gasoline engines very quickly became widespread. And electric-motor vessels and their land-based “brothers” - electric vehicles - due to the limited resource of batteries and the difficulty of charging them, until recently remained an exceptional rarity.

Today, there are boats with gasoline engines on almost every body of water. They poison the water and air; with their roar, exhaust gases, and strong waves causing coastal erosion, they disrupt the living conditions of the inhabitants of rivers, lakes and seas. Things have reached the point where it is necessary to restrict and in some places ban the movement of motor boats. So electric-powered ships with solar panels have a chance to become a real alternative. Environmentally friendly “solar” vessels are better suited than others for active recreation, sports, fishing and tourism.

It is much easier to turn a watercraft into a “solar” transport than a car: there is much more space on the deck of a boat or boat to accommodate solar panels than in the back of a car. There are other advantages too. On open reservoirs, photovoltaic converters are not shaded by trees, houses, or cars and therefore release more energy. Water transport does not have to overcome long ascents and descents, quickly accelerate and brake at traffic lights, which means they need less energy.

All solar powered vehicles have batteries. Their capacity and weight depend on the purpose of the vessel. On speedboats or Sunday boats they may be small. If the “solar” boat is used only on weekends, the batteries can be charged on weekdays, and the solar panels for charging the batteries should be placed not on the boat itself, but on a stationary coastal solar station.

On a short voyage you can do without batteries. But then, in case of bad weather, you need to have a backup propulsion device on board: oars, pedals or a sail. Solar panels can play the role of a sail. They also make a canopy that will protect from the sun and rain.

Unlike internal combustion engines, modern electric boat motors require virtually no maintenance. There is no need to keep containers for fuel and lubricating oils on the boat and no need to change the engine oil.

The first electric motor ship powered by solar energy was built in 1975 by Englishman Alan Freeman. His electric catamaran reached speeds of up to 5 km/h. Nowadays, just a quarter of a century later, the speed of electric boats with solar panels has more than doubled, and they can be purchased in sporting goods stores, for example, in Germany, Switzerland and other countries.

Electric motor ships powered by solar batteries have been tested more than once on long sea voyages. In 1985, Japanese yachtsman Kenichi Hori crossed the Pacific Ocean alone on the solar boat Seacreeker. In 75 days he covered 8,700 nautical miles. The speed of 3-5 knots at which the Seacreekerk sailed from Hawaii to Bonin Island off the west coast of the United States was close to the average speed of a 9-meter cruising sailing yacht.

A “solar” vessel has many advantages over a sailing vessel: sailing on it is much less dependent on the vagaries of the weather, and it is convenient that you can use electrical means of communication and household appliances. For example, Kenichi Hori's boat had a refrigerator, a microwave oven, a TV and video camera, a satellite navigation system, a radar, meteorological instruments and an on-board computer. The traveler even took a small-sized washing machine with him on his solo voyage. The energy for the operation of these devices was generated by solar panels with an area of ​​9 m2 and a total power of 1100 W. Of these, 500 W was used during the day to operate the propeller of an electric motor with a power of 0.33 kW, 400 W was used to charge the battery that powers the engine at night, 200 W was used for household needs and to operate the radio station. Lightweight solar modules were rigidly mounted on the roof of the cabin and the deck of the Seacreeker. Heavy batteries were located in the bilge of the hull and served as ballast.

Environmentally friendly vehicles, both land and water, were presented in the international ecotour "Finland 2000". The Finnish “solar” yacht “Solveig” with a deck lined with bright blue photovoltaic modules aroused great interest among specialists and spectators. The 1.5 kW electric motor installed on it allows it to reach speeds of up to 5 knots in sunny weather. Six batteries with a capacity of 125 Ah, placed inside the keel, increase the stability of the vessel. The spacious cabin has enough space for a long trip for a crew of four to five people. Navigation devices, a microwave oven, a refrigerator, as well as an electric motor receive energy from solar panels. Folding to allow easy passage under low bridges, the mast is adapted to accommodate a sail.

Another “solar” yacht of the inventor Jorma Pankala, named “Aten” (named after the ancient Egyptian god of the Sun), took part in the eco-tour “Finland-2000”. The lightweight vessel, made of fiberglass, is shaped like a small aircraft carrier. Its spacious deck has enough space to accommodate solar panels with a total power of 1200 W. The Aton does not have a mast, but J. Pankala intends to equip the ship with a wind generator on a telescopic stand and a kite-shaped sail. In shallow water, where it is impossible to use a propeller, the propeller of a reversible electric generator will work as an air propulsion device.

There is a glass porthole at the bottom of the yacht. You can open it and pour sea water on it. The ship's draft is only 25 cm, so a low side around the porthole is quite enough to avoid the ship from flooding.

Ecotour "Finland-2000" convinced everyone that "sunny" boats, powerboats and yachts are suitable for sailing even in such a northern country as Finland - in the summer there are not much fewer sunny days there than in the south. They can be completely autonomous even during long voyages and are suitable for both small rivers and lakes and open seas.

Photovoltaic energy converters, chemical power sources and electric drive systems used on solar ships are becoming increasingly efficient. They take up very little space, so even small “family” yachts can accommodate a variety of additional equipment - from a dry closet to a small sauna. This especially attracts travelers accustomed to the benefits of civilization. "Solar" ships are almost silent. They speak without raising their voices, listen to the singing of birds, the splashing of waves and the sound of the wind, and breathe fresh air. Anyone who likes to travel on water will want to use such transport.

7. Monorails

Monorails were proposed almost 180 years ago. The first Russian horse-drawn monorail was built near the village of Myachkovo in 1820. Mainly for the transportation of timber. The current electric model of such a road was built in St. Petersburg by engineer I.V. Romanov in 1897.

A modern monorail consists of a reinforced concrete or metal beam (rail) raised onto an overpass, and rolling stock (cars) on bogies with pneumatic tires. There are suspended roads, where the cars have a lower support point and seem to sit astride a supporting beam, and suspended systems, where the cars are suspended from bogies resting on a beam. Each of these types of roads has its own advantages and disadvantages. An overhead road requires a more complex system of running gears to ensure the stability of the cars. In addition, in unfavorable weather conditions, the monorail (beam) becomes covered with ice or snow and practically disables the system or requires labor-intensive work to clean it. Along with this, this type of road makes it possible to have a significantly (2-3 m) lower height of the overpass supports and, therefore, lower construction costs (Fig. 7.1). For overhead roads, on the contrary, higher supports are required to ensure proper elevation of the floor (bottom) of the car body above the ground surface (4.0-5.0 m), but the running parts of the cars are significantly simplified.

Figure 7.1. Exterior view of the monorail canopy

The current monorails are mainly electric, receiving energy from a contact wire. They are low noise and do not pollute the air. A monorail train, like a subway train, can consist of one or several cars. The maximum speed on existing roads is 70-125 km/h, carrying capacity is up to 40 thousand passengers/hour. The cost of constructing monorail roads is approximately 2 times lower than the cost of an underground metro. If there is free space for installing overpasses, they are recognized as effective as a means of urban and suburban transport, as well as in very rough and mountainous areas.

In the eighties, scientists from the Physics and Energy Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the Latvian SSR created a very original project of a magnetic levitation monorail for transportation at a speed of 500 kilometers per hour.

The car was supposed to be created on the basis of the fuselage of the Il-18 transport aircraft, which had already been proven in operation (Fig. 7.2). The length of such a carriage, designed to accommodate 100 passengers, was 36 meters, width 3.5 meters, height 3.85 meters, and weight - 40 tons. Under the floor of the car there were cryostats with superconducting magnets, which were connected to the body through a spring suspension (since at a speed of 500 kilometers per hour, disturbances from the track cannot be extinguished only due to the gap in the magnetic suspension, assumed to be 22 millimeters). The frequency converters were controlled by an on-board computer.

Figure 7.2 Magnetic levitation monorail

During parking and movement to the depot and outfitting areas, the car had to move on wheels on rails with a gauge of 3 meters; when moving on the stretch, the wheels were removed. The crew also had to “land” on these wheels in the event of a magnetic suspension system failure.

An experimental model was built with a carriage weighing 3.2 kilograms. In the 90s, there was no information about the continuation of work on this project.

Despite its apparent external simplicity, the monorail track is both complex in design and labor-intensive in construction. The supporting beam (the monorail itself) on elevated roads is made of monolithic or prefabricated reinforced concrete, and on all suspended roads it is made of high-strength steel. This structural element must withstand very heavy loads during acceleration and braking of trains, as well as when trains pass curved sections of track. These, in particular, to compensate for centrifugal forces, are curved in two planes, which leads to an increase in the cost of the entire building. For example, to build a monorail track at Disneyland, it was necessary to order complex prefabricated formwork consisting of fifty elements. In addition, monorails are difficult to maintain track and rolling stock, and also require passengers to get on and off the overpass.

These shortcomings have led to the fact that at the moment several dozen separate monorail lines have been built around the world, ranging from hundreds of meters to several kilometers in length, mainly as attractions in parks, exhibitions, etc.

At the same time, monorails can have their own economically feasible scope of application as a full-fledged type of urban and intercity transport.

8.Motor-unit trains

The initial stage of railway development was characterized by the use of passenger trains exclusively on locomotive traction. With the widespread use of electric traction, an alternative to this solution has emerged in the form of a train, in which the traction power is distributed along its entire length. Until now, a single trend has not been determined in this regard, although the principle of distributed traction is used almost everywhere in suburban passenger transportation.

On light urban railways and tram lines, the flexible and well-proven concept of "motor car + trailer car" was replaced in the late 1950s, due to high personnel costs, by a more modern one, involving the use of motor unit trains of articulated cars with a common compartment.

On the metro and city railways (S-Bahn), which have access to main lines, relatively high speeds and short distances between stops require the use of trains with a large number of motor axles. Back in 1970, when developing the 420 series electric train for the Munich S-Bahn, the maximum power of the traction power supply system was taken into account. The nine-car train with all-axle drive has a continuous power of 7.6 MW, a maximum speed of 120 km/h and an acceleration acceleration of 1 m/s 2 .

For suburban and regional passenger transportation, locomotive-hauled trains are used. Depots providing maintenance for passenger cars and locomotives have historically been separate within the railroad system. Locomotive-hauled trains made it possible to flexibly respond to changes in passenger traffic by increasing or decreasing the number of cars. Unfortunately, stations in many large cities are dead-end stations on branches from main lines. With the introduction of compressed timetables, the stopping time of S-Bahn and regional trains had to be reduced due to insufficient station capacity. All these factors indicated that instead of changing locomotives, we could only talk about using shuttle trains with a locomotive at one end and a car with a control cabin at the other. Multi-unit trains can be considered as an alternative option.

For a long time, long-distance passenger trains included direct carriages, which were part of different trains on long-distance routes, including international ones. During the development of the InterCity (IC) intercity train system, direct carriages replaced EuroCity (EC) trains in international services. Here, for electric rolling stock, a serious obstacle was the junction of different traction current systems, and for trains with a traction drive of any type, the difference in signaling systems.

After stops for passport and customs control were canceled at the borders between European countries, the change of locomotives became a brake on increasing the route speed of trains. Modern power electronics makes it possible to build multi-system electric locomotives and electric trains at acceptable costs. An example is the Thalys trains of the National Society of Railways of France (SNCF) with end motor cars (Fig. 8.1) and ICE3 of the German Railways (DBAG) with distributed traction (Fig. 8.2).

Figure 8.1. Thalys high speed train with end motor cars

Figure 8.2. ICE3 train with distributed traction

Due to the large number of dead-end stations in Germany, DBAG shuttle trains are widely used in intercity services. A logical step would be a transition from them to multiple unit trains with the organization of technical maintenance according to the system adopted for high-speed ICE trains.

High-speed new lines with powerful and comfortable trains only pay off if capital and operating costs are in reasonable proportion to revenues. Life cycle cost (LCC) analysis shows that rolling stock maintenance and repair costs (including financial losses from downtime during repairs) are an important LCC item.

The traditional concept of separate maintenance of traction rolling stock and passenger cars with different intervals of preventive and repair work turns out to be untenable when calculating the relationship between LCC and economic efficiency. In this regard, specialized depots were built in Hamburg, Munich and Berlin for the maintenance of ICE trains, in which an automatic diagnostic system was introduced. Thanks to this, ICE trains have an annual mileage of 550 thousand km, while for traditional locomotive-hauled trains it is 300 thousand km.

These depots serve trains with end motor cars (ICE1, ICE2) and trains with distributed traction (ICE3, ICE-T). The length of the repair shop is 400 m, which corresponds to the maximum length of the train and the standard platform length in Europe.

The commercial argument for the use of multi-unit trains with distributed traction is the increased useful length. If the 200 m long, 8 MW ICE3 train were not distributed traction, it would require two motor cars at the ends. In this case, the useful length would decrease by 30 m (15%), which means a loss of useful length of the passenger platform and a decrease in the number of passenger seats sold. Even with one motor car at the head and limiting the maximum train power to 6 MW, there would be a significant loss of passenger seats compared to a motor car of the same length.

A train 200 m long, driven by a locomotive and made up of double-decker cars, according to the most approximate calculations, is 10% more expensive to manufacture than a train of the same length made of ordinary cars. At the same time, the number of seats is 20% more than on a regular train.

In Taiwan, for example, with short passenger platforms, it was necessary to maximize the number of seats on the train. In the European version (Alstom/Siemens), it was proposed to solve this problem by using double-decker trains with end motor cars, in the Japanese version - by using motor unit trains with cars of increased width (five seats in a row). The option of double-decker trains with distributed traction and an even larger number of seats was considered unrealistic due to the lack of free space under the car bodies to accommodate equipment.

The disadvantages of double-decker trains in high-speed traffic include:

· increased axle load;

· large volume of displaced air when moving in tunnels;

· increased lateral surface that absorbs wind load.

In high-speed traffic, there is a trend towards the use of multiple unit trains. When developing the ICE3, we were guided by the same considerations as in the early 1970s, when the 403 series multiple unit electric train was created: high speed and corresponding aerodynamics, increased power with good traction due to a large number of motor axles, and comfort.

From the very beginning of the development of the Shinkansen system, Japan focused on trains with distributed traction, while in France preference was given to TGV trains with end motor cars. However, work is also underway on a high-speed AGV multiple unit train there.

The big disadvantage of diesel trains is the vibration transmitted to the body from the diesel engine. Added to this is the noise of the fans, which cool the traction converters, located, like the diesel engine, under the body.

For operational services, locomotive-hauled trains are more convenient from the point of view of changing the composition depending on fluctuations in passenger traffic. In them, passengers in search of free space can freely pass through the entire train, which is impossible in multiple unit trains made up of two or more sections.

For multiple unit trains and shuttle trains that have an end car with a control cabin, transverse wind loads are of great importance, the magnitude of which becomes dangerous at increased speed and low weight of the train. Japanese Shinkansen trains, which have an axial load of 12 tons, are most exposed to wind loads. The cramped dimensions of the tunnels on their lines required a search for an aerodynamically optimal solution for the frontal part of the trains. The narrow and elongated fairing facilitates the passage of tunnels. However, when moving in open areas under the influence of a side wind, a “wing effect” occurs on it, as a result of which the aerodynamic lift force unloads the front bogie.

In Japan, when creating Shinkansen trains, they strive to make their structures as lightweight as possible. In the early years of the Shinkansen lines, there were serious problems with the condition of the superstructure. This was mainly due to the low quality of crushed stone ballast at high traffic volumes of high-speed trains.

Currently, Shinkansen lines use a rigid track. To reduce axle loads, the 11-car 700 series train has 36 motor axles, with a traction power of only 275 kW per axle. This measure, aimed at preserving the superstructure of the track, complicates the design of the rolling stock. Although producing large quantities of geared motor units is more profitable, at the same time the installation volume increases, and in operation the maintenance costs increase and the likelihood of damage increases. The other extreme in terms of drive concept for such a 9.9 MW train would be to use two four-axle end motor cars, as in the ICE1 train. At the same time, the length of the train would increase from 280 to 310 m with the same number of seats.

The above arguments do not yet allow us to make a final conclusion about which traction drive concept should be preferred. In this regard, a comparison is made of two real trains performing the same work under similar operating conditions, having the same annual mileage and comparable maintenance concepts. For this purpose, DBAG data and research results from the consulting company DE-Consult were used.

The purpose of the comparison is to select a train with higher economic efficiency, for which the LCC costs of the ICE2 train with end motor cars and ICE3 with distributed traction were compared. The most important technical data for comparison are given in table. 8.1.

Table 8.1. Technical data of compared trains

The cost of a train with distributed traction is higher than with end motor cars. However, due to the larger number of seats on this train, there is almost equilibrium in terms of cost per seat, since the difference of 2% lies within the range of the results.

For comparison, other factors must also be considered. The cost of purchasing rolling stock (capital) is only about 20% of the LCC. Ignoring the disposal costs that will be required after 25 years or more, 80% of LCC is due to operation and maintenance. The comparison results are shown in table. 8.2.

Table 8.2. Life cycle cost comparison

According to preliminary calculations, the electricity consumption of a more powerful train with distributed traction, as well as the costs of its ongoing maintenance, are higher due to the larger number of traction motors and increased passenger capacity. Although the overall LCC of distributed traction trains is 10% higher, this is offset by higher revenues resulting from the larger number of seats. The final result of the comparison can be a 9% gain in favor of a train with distributed traction in terms of specific LCCs per passenger seat.

Despite the results obtained by calculation and presented in tables for trains of the ICE family, each specific case of choice must be considered separately, taking into account all local conditions and parameters, such as speed, distance between stops, line topography, passenger traffic, manufacturing and repair capabilities and routine maintenance in the country of use. For locomotive-hauled trains, the long-established system of maintenance in locomotive and carriage depots is more convenient.

Compact installation of electrical equipment in a locomotive is simpler than when it is distributed along the entire length under the bodies of cars in a multiple unit train. For maintenance of full multiple unit trains at the depot, long workshops are needed. Experience shows that the efficiency of maintenance is much higher when it is carried out on a complete train than on a car-by-car basis.

The ICE3 and ICE-T train cars are manufactured in Germany by different companies united in a consortium. The formation of trains takes place only on the tracks of the Siemens test center in Wegberg-Wildenrath.

For long-distance trains, the requirement for increased traction when starting off (as with S-Bahn trains) is not mandatory. However, here excess traction force must be provided when reaching maximum speed or driving on inclines up to 40 ‰. Achieving the required traction force is associated with the problem of using the clutch, which, in turn, depends on the axial load in locomotive-hauled trains and on the number of motor axles in multiple unit trains. These problems are successfully solved thanks to the use of modern power electronics and reliable protection against skidding and skidding. In this case, a power of 1.4 MW per axle of a locomotive (end motor car) or 0.5 MW per axle of a multi-unit train is sufficient.

Trains ICE1 and ICE2 with end motor cars, with distributed traction ICE3 and ICE-T from cars with tilting bodies have appeared in the last 10 years. They are currently a family of high-end trains used on long-distance routes. Each of them has its own niche in the transport services market: ICE1 with a large passenger capacity is used on long routes, ICE2 on shorter routes, ICE3 where the highest maximum speed is required and there are slopes up to 40 ‰, and ICE-T is most convenient on relatively old lines with a large number of curves.

In freight transportation today there is no alternative to locomotive traction.

9.Combined public rail transport systems

Historically, surface rail currently accounts for a relatively small share of intracity passenger traffic. In Europe and America, it could not withstand competition from private cars. Thus, tram services currently operate in approximately 300 cities around the world, while between the First and Second World Wars the number of such cities was twice as large.

The first lines of urban rail transport appeared in New York in 1852, then in Paris in 1853. They ran along the streets at ground level, not isolated from other street traffic. However, the last tram lines in Paris were closed in 1937, in London in 1961, which was facilitated by the presence of an extensive network of metro and bus routes.

Currently, the most “tram” city in the world is St. Petersburg. Every year, 2,000 tram trains carry about 1 billion passengers along lines with a total length of more than 700 km. In second place is Moscow with 1000 tram trains, a line length of 450 km and a traffic volume of about 400 million passengers per year. Tram services are common mainly in cities in Eastern and Central Europe. Germany has the largest number of cities with tram service: there are trams in 52 cities, and in 20 of them the population does not exceed 200 thousand people.

City administrations are gradually returning to the recognition of public, especially rail transport, as an effective means of solving increasingly complex transport problems, the most important of which is the overload of streets with cars, leading to the formation of congestion, consequently, to an increase in travel time, and air pollution from exhaust gases. At the first stage, underground metro lines were built on an expanding scale in the capitals and largest cities of different countries of the world. Then, in smaller cities, they began to create lightweight metro networks, the lines of which partially ran at ground level. And finally, recently we have paid attention to the tram, the cost of infrastructure and rolling stock of which is significantly lower than the metro. The advantages of the tram have been recognized, such as high carrying capacity and speed of trains (when separate lanes are allocated), as well as environmental friendliness (when measures are taken to reduce the noise impact on the environment). Thus, the conditions arose for the return of the tram to the cities.

In recent years, the tram has appeared for the first time or been revived in about 30 cities in more than 10 countries around the world. More than 10 more tram networks will be opened by the end of 2000, and up to 100 projects are being considered on five continents, especially in Asia, where public transport needs are greatest. However, in the actual implementation of projects, the United States is the leader, where 12 networks are being created, France (10) and the UK (4).

Tram-train system

Transport administrations of many cities in Europe and America have recently begun to show interest in the concept of using rolling stock in public transport for transportation between the city center and the suburbs or between the centers of nearby cities, capable of operating on both tram and mainline railway lines. The concept of such combined transport systems is called “tram-train”. Just 10 years ago, few people thought about it, despite the fact that for the most part the gauge of the tram and railway networks is the same and the technical problems are, in principle, surmountable.

Both rail transport systems have a similar track design and are based on the general principle of using clutch in a wheel-rail system. However, they have traditionally been completely separate from each other and operated differently, so the question of their at least partial unification has never arisen.

At the same time, in a number of cases, a different question arose - about the possibility of running tram trains along unused or little-used tracks of suburban railway lines, which would allow residents of the nearest suburbs to get to the city center without a transfer. Similarly, commuter trains could enter the city center along tram lines. Such a combination of two types of public rail transport with the joint use of infrastructure would be very useful for increasing the efficiency of public transport and creating additional amenities for passengers, provided, of course, that the associated problems are solved.

The potential market for tram-train transport systems, judging by the forecasts and the first results of the implementation of this concept, has favorable development prospects. In Germany, examples of expanding the tram network at the expense of railway lines are Karlsruhe and Saarbrücken, in the UK - Manchester. There is already experience of international cooperation in this area: the transport connection between Saarbrücken, Germany, and Sarreguemines, France, operates according to this concept.

A breakthrough in this direction occurred in the second half of the 1980s, when the municipality of Karlsruhe, Germany, asked the German Railways Authority (DBAG) to consider running tram trains along approximately 20 km of the commuter line. The Karlsruhe City Transport Authority (AVG) operated 49 km of intra-city tram lines at that time. The first steps were to acquire from DBAG a section of an unused freight line several kilometers long and reconstruct it for passenger traffic. Four years later, in November 1998, after research and testing, AVG and DBAG signed an agreement, approved by the relevant authorities, on the conditions for joint operation of the Karlsruhe-Bretten section. Tram train service on this section was opened in September 1992. This transport system was called CityLink.

The total length of the CityLink system slightly exceeds 30 km. It includes a 6.4 km tram line within the city of Karlsruhe, a new, purpose-built 2.8 km connecting line and an operational DBAG section of 21 km to Bretten; Along the last section, regular passenger and freight trains continue to operate as before. The system uses rolling stock for two traction power supply systems: tram 750 V DC and railway 15 kV, 162/3 Hz AC

The total population of the area covered by CityLink is more than 500 thousand people, including 270 thousand residents of Karlsruhe. Since its opening, the volume of traffic of the new transport system has almost doubled.

In 1996, the movement of tram trains along the DBAG tracks in the other direction from Karlsruhe to Baden-Baden was organized in a similar way.

5 years after Karlsruhe, a combined rail transport system was opened in Saarbrücken, a city with a population of 250 thousand people. In September 1997, the Saarbahn transport system, 19 km long, was put into operation in a direction south of Saarbrücken, of which 1 km runs through French territory (from the border to Sarreguemines). The successful operation of the world's first international connection via the tram-train system prompted the relevant authorities to develop other similar connections between cities in Germany, France and Belgium (Mulhouse-Freiburg, Strasbourg-Kehl, Lille-Tournai, etc.).

The project in Saarbrücken took less time than in Karlsruhe (5 years instead of 8), despite the additional problems associated with crossing the border and building a new 5 km long section. Its success has contributed to the expansion of work north of Saarbrücken, where the Saarbahn system will consist of an 11 km section of the DBAG line and a new 14 km section. There is a plan to link the German city of Gerschweiler, also in the Saarland, with the French Forbach. Thus, a network of tram-train transport systems will be created in the Saarland, serving a region with a population of more than 1 million people.

In the first year of operation of the Saarbahn system (Fig. 9.1), 8 million passengers were transported on 250-seat trains built by Bombardier, i.e. 20% more than the year before, trams, DBAG trains and buses combined were transported along this route. .

Figure 9.1. Saarbahn train in Saarbrücken

The average daily traffic volume was 10% higher than predicted. The system's share of total passenger traffic reached 50%, while previously the share of DBAG commuter trains did not exceed 10%.

About 20 cities in Germany with tram connections have expressed interest in cooperating with DBAG, other railway operators, and rolling stock manufacturing companies in creating similar transport systems. It is believed that the tram-train system is optimal for transport services in regions with a population of about 500 thousand people.

As combined rail transport systems have become recognized as full participants in the passenger transport process alongside traditional systems, emerging issues have been clarified and answered, but at the same time demands from the involved transport authorities have increased. Operating companies are trying to solve the problems of compatibility of completely independent, technically different and differently managed transport systems on the same infrastructure. According to the general opinion, harmonization of technical parameters of rolling stock, permanent structures and devices, and unification of operating procedures are not enough. A more comprehensive approach tailored to the circumstances of each individual case is required.

For transport systems such as tram-trains, the main problem remains ensuring collision safety. The rolling stock of the system should provide users with a combination of qualities inherent in both a tram (accessibility, comfort, fit into the urban environment) and a train (high speed, usually higher than that of a conventional tram, sufficient passenger capacity, resistance to shock loads).

The last aspect is characterized by the fact that for a long time the requirements for the impact strength of tram and railway rolling stock, ensuring the safety of passengers in collisions, differed significantly. Thus, for mainline railway carriages, the magnitude of the frontal impact load, which can be absorbed without destroying the main structure and, therefore, without damaging the health of passengers, is determined in many countries to be 150 tons. More stringent standards apply in the USA, and less stringent ones in Asia and Africa. . For tram cars, taking into account the lower speed and the likelihood of collisions, in general, an impact resistance of 50 tons is considered sufficient, and this value also varies within certain limits depending on local conditions.

The difference between 150 and 50 tons was, in particular, one of the reasons for SNCF’s lack of plans to share the railway infrastructure. On the contrary, the railways of Germany and Switzerland showed greater flexibility and several years ago reduced the requirements for the impact strength of lightweight rolling stock to 60 tons, explaining this by the specifics of operation and technical progress in the fields of design and materials science, which made it possible, for example, to introduce deformable materials into the design of rolling stock. elements that absorb collision energy. Other active and passive safety measures have been developed to ensure sufficient strength even with reduced weight.

The rolling stock of the latest tram-train systems, put into operation after 1997, managed to combine the operational flexibility of the dual-system rolling stock of the CityLink transport system in Karlsruhe, allowing it to operate on lines electrified with different types of current, and the high level of comfort of modern tram trains, for example, the presence of a low-level floor, which facilitates and speeds up the boarding and disembarkation of passengers.

Manufacturers also introduce into the rolling stock of such systems elements of internal equipment that were previously characteristic only of passenger train cars, for example, air conditioning units, seats with variable backrest angles, partitions that separate separate compartments in the general cabin, etc.

The rolling stock of tram-train systems in Germany is equipped with retractable steps at the entrance doors to compensate for the difference in floor levels of vestibules and boarding platforms. The traction drive uses converter units and engines that allow it to reach speeds of up to 100 km/h. At the same time, this causes a certain increase in the cost of rolling stock (up to DM 4.8 million for a 200-seat train), which is reflected in operating costs. Thus, in Saarbrücken, increasing the level of comfort and meeting the requirements to ensure the compatibility of trams and railways costs 8.5 marks/train-km, or 5 million marks per year, which forces the price of each ticket to increase by 0.5 marks. However, the general consensus is that these costs are considered justified.

All of the above explains why the term “tram-train” is becoming more and more familiar to the administrations of urban public transport and railways in many countries. The use of this concept opens the way to the return of rail transport to cities and makes it possible to solve many problems of intracity and suburban passenger transportation.

10.High-speed passenger pipeline

This high-speed passenger pipeline is called FTS (Fast Tube System). It was invented by the British. FTS is a network of pipes with ordinary railway rails laid in them, as well as an N number of stations to receive passenger traffic, which is planned to be sent through these pipes.

Of course, as in the description of any transport project of the 21st century, first of all, the global advantages of the project are presented to the curious. They are usually the same, but this time we will name some: firstly, ecology, traffic jams and the like, secondly, it is an alternative to all public transport and, finally, thirdly, FTS is cheap and not at all annoying. Fast, convenient, no problems.

The inventors write that the most expensive part of FTS will be the construction of stations. Everything else is nonsense: laying pipes is the same water supply, capsules are cheaper than cars. The system will operate entirely automatically, so there is no need to spend much on personnel. Start-up investments and forward to fantastic profits and an environmentally friendly world.

The designers came up with the idea that there would be a vacuum in the pipes, of which there should be two (back and forth), and this would ensure speed, noiselessness and the absence of air resistance. Inside, according to the British developers, the capsule is a life support system and a carefree pastime with a sofa, TV and, importantly, an air supply system. There are no controls in the capsule - there is no need (Fig. 10.1).

Figure 10.1. Passenger pipeline design

All Fast Tube System capsules move at the same speed and in unison. The developers haven’t fully decided what to do with the power supply: it has been decided that it will be electricity, but how to supply the energy is not yet clear. The designers write that yes, this is “of course, one of the main problems of the project,” but we’ll come up with something.

However, we won’t dwell on the “little things” - a lot of interesting things have already been invented for FTS: station design, for example, comfort and service for passengers.

Each station stores a certain number of capsules in a vacuum settling tank.

And in general, capsules (empty and full) circulate through the FTS surprisingly clearly - automatically. For the pipeline, the authors of the project came up with an “Automatic Control System”. This is the king and God of FTS, we must take him for granted and move on.

Those who dare to become passengers go to the computer, choose a route, pay for the trip and wait. A train station is a station. Soon, a voice from a loudspeaker near the ceiling announces which exit those departing should approach - just as in a telephone booth they call the number of a telephone booth.

The “carriage” is presented, the passenger enters it, as if into an elevator, after which the vacuum “packaging” automatically closes, the capsule takes a horizontal position, leaves the station “appendicitis” into the “second pipe”, where the first acceleration occurs, and then into the Main pipe. 420 km/h.

Yes, there are a few more “little things” and “main problems”: whatever one may say, the capsules will sometimes have to move at different speeds - speed up, slow down in front of the stations - these are, as the designers write, “significant technical obstacles”.

Now about comfort and service for passengers. Let's start with the fact that when entering the capsule, "they will experience no more psychological discomfort than when entering an elevator." There will be no discomfort inside: there is an ideal artificial climate, and oxygen masks, just in case.

Another option being considered is an airbag - the same as in cars: "the airbag must be large enough to actually fill the capsule, thus fixing the occupant on the surface of a cozy bed in a safe but very limited position. However, the air supply after the deployment of the airbag could be associated with some specific difficulties."

Seat belts are a purely voluntary matter: “in the event of a mechanical breakdown (wheels, rails, brakes) the system is safe, but if such a breakdown occurs, the consequences will be very serious, like an accident in the air.”

It is proposed to minimize overloads during acceleration and deceleration due to the ergonomics of the passenger seat. In case of problems, the passenger will be able to report them via video communication, payment is made by credit card. Using the same video connection, you can order a taxi to the station.

11.Individual aircraft

One of the first models of a miniature collapsible helicopter was created by Hiller Helicopters in 1954. It was called Rotorcycle, and was created specifically for American military pilots (Fig. 11.1). On it, pilots had to return to “theirs” across the front line if their planes were shot down over enemy territory. Pilots would assemble a parachuted Rotorcycle by hand without any available tools within a few minutes.

Figure 11.1. Rotorcycle

On January 10, 1957, a prototype Rotorcycle took to the skies. Based on the test results, a contract was signed with the English aircraft plant Saunders Roe to create ten more helicopters. Ultimately, twelve Rotorcycles were built by the end of 1961: seven military (XROE-1 and YROE-1) and five civilian (G-46).

Military helicopters were sent to the USA for further testing; three helicopters were purchased by NASA Research Center (NASA Ames Moffett Field) in November 1962, and two more remained somewhere in Europe. The Rotorcycle was never put into service - the US military, for some reason, abandoned it before the end of testing.

At the end of 1999, the Americans gained unexpected followers - the Japanese company Engineering System. She presented her model GEN H-4. A 70-kilogram pilot can fly it without refueling for an hour at speeds of up to 88 km/h. The maximum weight that a helicopter can lift is 86 kg. When looking at the photographs, the similarity of the models becomes obvious (Fig. 11.2).

Figure 11.2. Miniature helicopter from Engineering System

The helicopter is powered by four super-light engines (40 horsepower), but if one of the engines fails, the GEN H-4 can fly on three, and make an emergency landing on two.

Each engine operates autonomously, and the developers consider it unlikely that all engines will fail at once. But even for such an unforeseen event, the GEN H-4 kit includes a parachute.

Helicopter fuel is a mixture of motor gasoline and two-stroke engine oil in a ratio of 30:1. The tank holds 2 to 5 gallons of fuel.

Representatives of the Engineering System assure that the training period for pilots is minimal (from two hours) and is needed more for their own safety: the control is quite simple. The control panel is located directly in front of the pilot between two handles, like on a motorcycle. The main buttons are located on the right and left: they are convenient to press with your thumbs. The developers plan to place an altitude meter on the panel, and oxygen cylinders under the seat, since the single-seat helicopter will be able to rise in areas of rarefied air. The estimated cost of the helicopter is ~ $30,000.

The second device for individual flights is called a rocket pack. It is called differently - Small Rocket Lift Device, Bell Rocket Belt, Personal Jetpack, Rocket Backpack, Jet Pack, Jet Flying Belt, Jet Belt, Jet Vest and so on - but there is very little reliable information about this “vehicle”

Although the first short experiment with the placement of powder rockets on the back was captured by German newsreels of the 30s (viewers see a quick and fairly hard “landing” of the tester on the ground), the idea of ​​​​the technical implementation of a rocket pack is attributed to Wendell Moore, an engineer from Bell Aerospace. In 1953, Moore began developing a backpack, then unromantically called the Small Rocket Lift Device (SRLD). Wendell Moore tested the first version of SRLD in 1958 himself.

Despite the dubious success of the first short “flights” over a short distance, the development of the device at Bell Aerospace continued - control levers were added, the design was improved, and so on, but it was still not possible to make the backpack truly safe. Ultimately, a 20-second flight duration with a maximum altitude of 4.5 meters was achieved.

In 1959, a contract was signed with the aerospace company Aerojet-General, which was to comprehensively study and test the SRLD. Reaction motors (RMI) also began experimenting with the device. Later, the US military negotiated with Bell Aerospace regarding the manufacture of SRLD and, as a result, a contract with Army's Transportation, Research and Engineering Command (TRECOM) was signed, and Moore became technical director SRLD project.

After the contract was signed, a 280-pound rocket engine was created, and hydrogen peroxide was chosen as the safest fuel. Moore, as a test pilot for the SRLD at that time, had to test his invention more than once at the Bell plant in Buffalo, but after one of these tests ended in a serious knee injury, the inventor had to forever abandon the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bflying his device.

The matter was transferred to another engineer, Harold Graham, who continued testing and on April 20, 1961, made the first free flight using the SRLD. Graham flew 34 meters at a speed of 16 km/h in 13 seconds.

The first demonstration performances took place on June 8, 1961, of course, in front of the military at Fort Eustice in Virginia, but more successful was the demonstration of the SRLD's capabilities on the lawn of the Pentagon.

The jetpack was then repeatedly demonstrated at exhibitions, fairs and similar events, including a flight in front of President Kennedy at Fort Bragg.

In the late 60s, the Bell Rocket Belt and test pilot Bill Suitor traveled almost all over the world and became very popular - Suitor even played a role in the movie.

In 1965, the film "Thunderball" was released: James Bond puts on a rocket pack and says that without this device a man cannot consider himself a gentleman.

However, despite its obvious popularity, the rocket pack, as they say, “did not catch on.” Mainly due to the short flight duration and its questionable safety. Soon the military also abandoned the backpack.

In 1969, when Wendell Moore died, Bell Aerospace revised its plans for the "Rocket Belt" and in January 1970 licensed the sale and production of the device, by then called the Bell Jet Belt, to Williams International, which undertook development of the "pack." in order to increase flight duration.

Since then, the jetpack has become exotic. Only occasionally is it used to entertain audiences during breaks at football matches, in advertising shows or for movie stunts. The rocket pack was seen at the opening of the Olympic Games in 1984.

Currently, the rocket packs made by Wendell Moore are housed in the New York University Museum and the Buffalo Campus Museum.

The jetpack was remembered only in 1995: a group of engineers from Texas developed an improved and slightly enlarged version, called the RB 2000 Rocket Belt. The redesigned "belt" allowed flight 50% longer than its "ancestor" - 30 seconds instead of 20.

Rocket fuel consists of three components: hydrogen peroxide propellant, high-pressure nitrogen gas, and samarium-nitrate-coated silver, which acts as a catalyst.

Two metal tanks hold 23 liters of hydrogen peroxide. When the pilot opens the valve, the pressurized nitrogen gas forces the peroxide into the catalyst chamber, where a chemical reaction occurs that turns the hydrogen peroxide into steam at 743 degrees Celsius. The steam escapes through two bent pipes behind the pilot's back. The center of mass of a person is located just below the nozzles, so the vertical position of the body will be maintained during flight. In front, like the armrests of a chair, are 2 control handles. They are rigidly linked to the backpack behind your back, but the backpack itself has a little freedom of movement; it can be slightly tilted in different directions. Under the right hand is a power regulator that controls the jet stream.

Due to the high temperature, the daredevil who dares to fly must wear a high-temperature-resistant suit. The flight itself lasts the same 30 seconds, and the maximum speed is 161 km/h.

Currently, no company is making jetpacks, except for Rocket Man Inc., which makes cooler bags for drinks in the form of jetpacks.

Conclusion

Accelerating scientific and technological progress in transport in modern conditions is a multi-planned, complex and capital-intensive task, but it must be solved, since there is no other way for transport transport to reach a level that meets all the future requirements of society.

Modern life is characterized by the rapid development of science and technology in all spheres of human activity. This process predetermines a faster change in the nature of equipment and technology in all sectors of the national economy, including transport itself.

Nowadays, scientific and technological progress is developing like an avalanche: in the past, centuries and decades passed from the emergence of an idea to its implementation, now it often takes a matter of years.

As a result, rapid obsolescence of technology occurs, and the need for more and more new discoveries arises. New types of transport are designed to make human life easier, making it even more comfortable, but at the same time they are required to comply with all environmental standards, which are becoming stricter every day.

New types of transport, which were briefly described in this work, are only a small part of all the improvements that have been made by man over the past few years. Some of them are currently operating systems, others are awaiting commissioning after ongoing tests, and others are too futuristic and expensive for today (but they can also come to life in the near future). But all of them are already helping society today to solve those pressing problems that have arisen as a result of human activity, and this process can no longer be stopped.

Literature:

1. Aksenov I.Ya. Unified transport system: Textbook. for universities - M: Higher. school, 199.

2. Gulia N.V., Yurkov S. New concept of an electric vehicle: Science and technology - 2000 - No. 2.

3. Popolov A. Individual electric transport XXI century: Science and technology - 2001 - No. 8.

4. Postnikov D. Electric car: pros and cons: Behind the wheel - 1997 - No. 2.

5. Popolov A. Electric bicycle today and tomorrow: Science and technology - 1999 - No. 8.

6. New urban transport - a car on rails: MEMBRANA – 2002 – №1.

7. Monocar - two-wheeled vehicle: Skif LLC, 2002.

8. Karimov A.Kh. Unmanned aircraft: maximum possibilities: Science and Life – 2002 - No. 6.

9. Popolov A. Happy sailing to the “Sunny” ships: Science and Life - 2001 - No. 6.

10. Izmerov O. The plane lands on the rails: Unknown domestic monorail.

11. Motor-unit trains - an alternative to locomotive traction: Railways of the world - 2002 - No. 1.

12. Batisse F. Combined systems of public rail transport: Railways of the world - 2000 - No. 8.

13. Fast Tube System - high-speed passenger pipeline: MEMBRANA – 2002 – №5.

14. Leskov I.V. Individual aircraft: Limits of infinity – 2002 - No. 1.

Views: 5454

Electric transport is a type of transport in which one or more traction electric motors are used for movement.
There are three main types of electric vehicles: 1) powered directly from an external source of electricity, 2) consumed electrical energy from batteries or other energy sources placed on board the vehicle, 3) using an electric motor and an internal combustion engine together (hybrid). vehicles), 4) using energy from alternative sources for movement.

Electric vehicles include: electric cars and trucks, electric trains, electric trolleybuses, electric buses, electrified all-terrain vehicles and tractors, electric airplanes, electric boats, electric motorcycles and scooters, electric bicycles, electric spacecraft.

Electric vehicles first appeared in the mid-19th century, when electricity was among the preferred energy sources. At that time, electric motors provided a high level of operating comfort, which was not possible to achieve with an internal combustion engine. But historically, the situation has developed in such a way that internal combustion engines have become more common in vehicles than electric ones. However, over the past few decades, the world has once again seen a trend of renewed interest in the formation of electric transport infrastructure, which is primarily caused by the concern of the world community about the negative impact of gasoline transport on the environment. Already today, electric vehicles are becoming increasingly popular.

Electric transport can use electricity obtained from various sources, including renewable ones, for its operation.

Vehicles with internal combustion engines typically only draw their energy from one or more non-renewable fuels. One of the main advantages of electric and hybrid vehicles is the ability of their engines to generate energy during braking - regenerative braking.

Electric transport is environmentally friendly because it is not a source of environmental pollution with exhaust gases or other emissions. Scientists have calculated that the introduction of electric transport technologies in the US can reduce carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere by 30%, in the UK by 40%, and by 19% in China.

Although electric vehicles accelerate well and provide a fairly long range between charges, their downside is the long recharging time of the batteries. However, electric transport is still the most financially profitable mode of transport and is very practical in everyday use. Electric cars, in a situation of rising gasoline prices and high levels of urban pollution, can cause a revolution in the automotive industry.

Electric cars are cars that are electrically powered. Electric cars whose engines consume energy from alternative sources can often get other names: solar cars, wind cars, etc.

Electricity is used in electric vehicles as fuel. Electrical energy is supplied to the vehicle by using overhead power lines, using inductive charging, or connecting to the electrical network using a charger or charging cable. Some electric vehicles have chargers on board, while others have chargers as a separate external unit. As a rule, the reservoirs of electrical energy on board electric vehicles are batteries.

The world's most popular electric vehicles include electric cars, electric scooters and bicycles.

Today, one of the main challenges for manufacturers is to overcome the discrepancy between the costs of developing and producing electric vehicles, compared with similar costs for the production of vehicles with internal combustion engines.

Electric transport equipment

The type of traction motor, batteries and controller used depend on the size and power of the vehicle.

Current expenses

It is easy to calculate that in a situation where gasoline prices are rising, operating electric vehicles is very profitable, since refueling with electricity will cost users much less than refueling with fuel. Electric vehicles are more economical than gasoline vehicles and are more economical in maintenance.

Range, acceleration

Electric cars cannot travel for long periods of time on a single battery charge, as they require periodic recharging from the mains. However, this problem can be solved quite simply by creating a network of electrical fast charging stations, using which you can restore the battery charge to 80% in just 30 minutes.

Electric motors are capable of delivering high power per unit weight. At the same time, the batteries provide high currents to support these motors.

Electric vehicles can have a small motor (15 kW or less) and therefore have little acceleration, or they can be equipped with powerful motors with high acceleration rates. In addition, the relatively constant torque of the electric motor leads to an increase in the speed characteristics of electric vehicles.

Electric vehicles have high torque over a wider range of acceleration speeds than internal combustion engines.

Environmental Safety

Electric vehicles are practically not a source of environmental pollution from exhaust gases. Electric vehicles do not emit carbon dioxide (CO2) or other pollutants that are common in gasoline vehicles. The big advantage of electric motors is that they do not require oxygen at all, unlike internal combustion engines.

Another advantage of electric vehicles is that they produce significantly less noise than vehicles with internal combustion engines.

Driving safety

In order to increase the range and endurance of electric vehicles, manufacturers are trying to reduce their weight. The use of heavy batteries in electric vehicles significantly makes their design heavier, and their handling also deteriorates. However, in two-vehicle collisions, the driver and occupants of the heavier vehicle are far less likely to be seriously injured than those in the lighter vehicle because the additional weight improves the safety of the electric vehicle, despite the negative impact on its performance. For example, a 900 kg electric car is 50% more likely to be seriously injured by passengers in a crash than a 1,400 kg electric car.

Energy efficiency

It is difficult to compare the performance of vehicles equipped with electric motors or internal combustion engines, since they operate on completely different principles. Gasoline vehicles convert fuel energy into mechanical energy through the use of a heat engine. Internal combustion engines have a fairly low level of energy efficiency because heat cannot be converted directly into mechanical energy.

Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines.
The efficiency of converting thermal energy into mechanical energy using an electric motor is 100%, while the energy efficiency of internal combustion engines does not exceed 20%.

In gasoline cars, a significant amount of fuel energy is converted into thermal energy, which can be used, for example, to heat the car interior. Electric vehicles, on the other hand, produce virtually no heat, and in cold weather, electric vehicles experience an increase in battery energy consumption and a decrease in the range between recharges.

Recharging

Electric vehicles, as a rule, can be recharged both from a regular household outlet and using special electrical recharging stations. Many users opt for gasoline vehicles, since filling a tank with fuel takes much less time than recharging electric vehicles with electricity. However, this shortcoming of electric vehicles can easily be eliminated by creating a network of fast charging gas stations in the country. While it may take several hours to recharge batteries from a household outlet, fast charging stations can significantly reduce the time of this process, down to 30 minutes.

Danger for pedestrians

On the one hand, electric vehicles help reduce background noise on the roadway, since they practically do not produce any sounds when driving, but on the other hand, silent electric vehicles can be a source of potential danger for pedestrians, especially for people with poor vision.

The approach of electric vehicles at speeds less than 30 km/h is almost imperceptible to the ear, but at higher speeds additional noise is created by tire friction and air shock. In order to increase the level of safety of electric transport, the government of a number of countries is working to create legal standards that would regulate the minimum permissible level of sound produced by the movement of electric and hybrid vehicles when operating in electric mode.

Types of Electric Vehicles

Almost any existing vehicle can be equipped with an electric drive.

Hybrid vehicles

Hybrid electric vehicles use more than one energy source to drive the drive wheels. Typically, the design of a hybrid vehicle involves a combination of both an internal combustion engine and an electric motor.

Today, the world uses full and moderate hybrid power plants operating in parallel or series circuits. In a parallel circuit, the electric motor and the internal combustion engine operate almost simultaneously, and in a series circuit, the internal combustion engine provides additional power to the electric motor with energy generated by the generator.

Most hybrid cars are full hybrids because the electric motor and internal combustion engine can operate completely independently. In addition, both motors can also work together. Unlike full hybrids, in moderate hybrids the electric motor plays only an auxiliary role; it can be used as an additional driving force when starting or help accumulate additional charge in the batteries during braking.

One of the most popular hybrid electric cars in the world today is the Toyota Prius.

On-road and off-road electric vehicles

Road electric vehicles include: electric cars and trucks, electric trolleybuses, electric buses, electric motorcycles and scooters, electric bicycles, golf carts, electric forklifts.
Off-road electric vehicles include electrified all-terrain vehicles and tractors.

Railway electric vehicles

The fixed nature of railway lines allows trains to be powered by overhead or ground power lines, eliminating the need for heavy on-board batteries to power electric vehicles. Nowadays, electric trains and trams are the most popular types of public transport in Europe and Asia.
The absence of batteries on board electric trains allows them to quickly accelerate and reach high speeds.

Air electric vehicles

Since the beginning of the aviation era, work has been going on to create electric air vehicles. Currently, the existence of such transport has become real. The group of vehicles today includes manned and unmanned aerial vehicles.

Water electric vehicles

Electric boats gained popularity at the turn of the 20th century. Interest in water transport powered by renewable energy has been constantly growing since the end of the 20th century. In recent years, it has even become possible to use electric motors to operate submarines. Solar boats are extremely popular in the world today.

Spacecraft

Electricity has a fairly long history of use, even in spacecraft. They can use batteries or solar panels as power sources.

© Sergey Voltaire 2013
Any copying, reprinting and distribution of article materials without the permission of the copyright holder is prohibited and prosecuted by law. Copyright infringement will be considered in accordance with Article 52 of the Law of Ukraine “On Copyright and Related Rights”, Article 176 of the Criminal Code of Ukraine, Article 432 of the Civil Code of Ukraine, Article 51-2 of the Code of Ukraine on Administrative Offenses.

Public (municipal) transport- variety passenger transport as an industry that provides services for transporting people along routes that the carrier establishes in advance, making known the delivery method (vehicle), the size and form of payment, guaranteeing regularity (repetition of movement at the end of the transportation production cycle), as well as the immutability of the route upon request passengers.

Criteria

The difference between public transport and other types and methods of transporting passengers:

• accessibility of transportation services to the widest segments of the population, without any class, professional and other social restrictions, based solely on the requirement fulfilled by the carrier in the presence of seats on the sole condition of payment for this service at established tariffs.
• paid service, which does not exclude possible tariff differentiation based on the age of the passenger
• the return nature of the movement, its regular and intensive repetition for the majority of passengers on the corresponding route over a long period of time.
• absence of institutional intermediaries in the acquisition of transportation services (individual and direct nature of the act of purchasing travel documents)
• in the modern world - the mandatory participation of local authorities in the regulation of this sector, coordination and supervision of the activities of carriers - providers of transportation services
• sufficient capacity of the vehicle (massive service), suggesting the possibility of sharing it simultaneously with two or more passengers independent of each other (this criterion excludes trips by cabs, taxis and rickshaws).

In practice, when considering the operation of public transport from the perspective of one or another type of vehicle (buses, trolleybuses, trams, subways, ferries, ships, etc.), among their passengers there is often a certain proportion of tourists making trips beyond the program of the tour they paid for, as well as military and other categories of citizens whose travel is free due to local laws. However, the shuttle bus does not lose its belonging to public transport even if at some point it turns out to be 100% filled with soldiers going to the bathhouse under the command of an ensign. The opposite is also true: a bus owned by a military unit does not become public transport only by virtue of the owner’s permission to board civilians.

It should also be noted that there is unofficial public transport, when a route or route does not legally exist, but drivers or specially authorized persons collect passengers at certain points. According to Russian law, such transportation, if paid, is an illegal business and is punishable by a fine or imprisonment. In terms of the form of service provision, such activity also refers to public transport, since passengers are recruited from everyone, and most often there is movement along a certain route (for example, city A near the bus station - city B near the bus station)

Ferries are becoming a means of providing public transport services both directly and during the delivery of passenger cars and/or vehicles, the passengers of which fall under the category of public transport clients, i.e. they make their return trips regularly and, as a rule, in connection with production activities, and not in the order of tourism or emigration. The same criteria for classification as public transport apply to the transportation of passengers on cargo-passenger ships.

Much less frequently, trolleybuses (intercity line in Crimea, intercity bus No. 284 Saratov - Engels, trolleybus line between the cities of Bendery and Tiraspol) and trams (64-kilometer line along the Belgian coast) act as intercity public transport.

In cities with steep slopes, specialized transport is sometimes installed - funiculars, elevators, escalators. Escalators and elevators are also installed in underground and overground pedestrian crossings. In mountainous conditions, as well as to overcome water obstacles, cable cars are used; this type of transport is rarely used in cities.

There are non-excursion vessels (river buses) used within cities, also related to public transport. In Russia and other countries with cold winters, their widespread use is hampered by the freezing of water bodies.

Story

The first type of passenger transport, determined by the criteria of regularity of movement along a pre-known route, without restrictions on the status of passengers, was water transport - transportation across rivers. Satisfying the conditions of the last filter, the condition of payment, became possible with the advent of the 8th century BC. e. money . Money originated in the Aegean civilization, and it is no coincidence that Charon appears in Greek mythology - a boatman (ferryman, carrier) who ferries passengers across the river for money. Behind this myth, which gave rise to the Hellenes’ tradition of placing a coin under the tongue of the dead, there is a specific practice from the world of the living: the dispersion of the Hellenes across the numerous islands of the Archipelago created a significant natural precondition for this.

The economic prerequisite for the emergence of public transport as an industry is the emergence of a market for personally free labor, supplemented by the factor of urbanization. In pre-class states, each community member, by definition, on the one hand, had personal transport, and on the other, did not feel the need for regular long-distance travel “light.” In antiquity, owning one's own on-site or at least the horse becomes the privilege of the master class, but here too, natural farming, coupled with the enslavement of the peasants, frees the exploited from the need for other people's paid services for regular transportation of themselves to the place of application of their labor power and back.

The answer to the question of the availability of public transport in ancient Babylon, Alexandria, Rome, and later Constantinople, which grew to a population of a million or so, is most likely negative. On the one hand, there is no historical evidence for this. On the other hand, the bulk of the population of these “megacities” consisted, in addition to slaves and warriors, of small and medium-sized artisans, whose additional labor (if any was required) settled within walking distance. In addition, the very level of development of the productive forces in those eras was insufficient to allocate a certain portion of the total volume of goods produced to “feed” public transport, as a special non-productive industry.

Public transport received widespread development in the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries. However, in the 1930s - 1960s, many countries experienced a process of curtailing public transport due to competition with personal cars, which were becoming increasingly accessible to the general public. In many cities, trams were completely eliminated. They were nationalized as the state-owned British Rail in 1947, but were again privatized in the 1990s.

A personal car usually provides much faster door-to-door travel with high comfort, but motorization creates many problems. Cities (especially older cities whose historical cores developed in the pre-automobile era) suffer from congested streets and insufficient parking spaces; Heavy traffic creates a lot of noise and air pollution. Ensuring the mobility of the motorized population requires large public costs.

There are different views on the relationship between public and individual transport:

• The extreme “automobile” point of view assumes the total motorization of the population and the complete eradication of public transport as unnecessary and creating interference in the movement of individual transport. The solution to the problems of motorization is seen in the extensive development of road networks, the introduction of new, more economical and “cleaner” engines and fuels. However, in practice, huge public costs (both direct for the construction and maintenance of roads, and indirect due to increased pollution, loss of natural complexes, etc.) hinder movement along this path. It should be noted that complete motorization is impossible due to the fact that many people are physically or mentally unable to drive vehicles. Regular trips by taxi are too expensive for most residents; not everyone accepts hitchhiking, as some people are embarrassed by it.
• The extreme “anti-car” point of view considers the individual car to be an unconditional evil. The solution to society's transport problems is seen in the development of public transport networks, providing members of society with a level of mobility and comfort comparable to individual transport. However, in practice, achieving a high level of comfort turns out to be problematic, especially in areas with low population density.

Nowadays, transport planning generally avoids both extremes, recognizing the value of both passenger convenience and social and natural balance. Thus, in areas of low population density, conditions are provided for widespread motorization, and in more densely populated cities, public transport is considered the preferred method of transportation. Solutions that allow mixed modes of movement (for example, park-and-ride stations) are widely used. The conditions of each individual society (political system, economic situation, behavioral stereotypes, settlement system) determine to which extreme point of view the emphasis is shifted.

In modern Russia, due to the economic situation and the mentality of certain social strata (primarily those working in the public transportation system), the majority of the population (including those who do not have the opportunity to have their own car and are interested in public transport) has formed a persistent dissatisfaction with public transport - the condition of the rolling stock, the quality of service. The reasons for this attitude are:

• Some drivers and conductors do not value the opinions of passengers about the service provided, and do not perceive passengers as a source of their income, although this fact seems to be obvious. The reason, first of all, is that showing rudeness and disrespect towards an individual passenger will not affect the business as a whole, since other passengers will still use their transport;
• Some owners of this business decide their own interests, ignoring the interests of passengers: transport runs mainly during peak hours, leaves routes early, stands idle at terminals until they are fully loaded, ignoring the schedule, the driver is given an extremely short time by the owner to travel from terminal to terminal, as a result of which drivers driving at excess speed and violating traffic rules, etc.;
• many passengers themselves cultivate such an attitude towards them through silence and reluctance to get involved in disputes and in defending their rights;
• In some transport enterprises, the transport is worn out and its owners are reluctant to repair it; the interiors are not maintained in a neat condition: worn seats are not replaced, glass and walls are not washed for months;
• There are often cases when this business is controlled by organized crime groups or law enforcement agencies, as a result of which attempts to influence the authorities and society remain unsuccessful.

Fixed public transport infrastructure

In addition to vehicles, fixed engineering structures are used:

• Buildings of depots, parks, repair shops, assembly and repair enterprises;
• Road and rail bed;
• Fuel supply devices;
• Power supply device;
• Buildings of enterprises operating road and highway facilities, electrical stations and substations, gas stations, fuel and spare parts warehouses;
• Bridges;
• Tunnels;
• Control rooms and administrative buildings;
• Buildings and structures for automation, telemechanics, communications, power supply, fuel, water, lubrication devices;
• Rest rooms for drivers, pilots, helmsmen, machinists, sailors;
• Stands, cabinets, posters with posted schedules, electronic displays, clocks;
• Buildings and structures for waiting for transport. From rain shelters to large buildings - train stations. It should be noted that the word station often refers to railway transport; for other types of transport, modified terms are used - bus station, air terminal, river station, sea station. Some bus transport companies call their bus stations bus stations. In Russia, the term airport instead of air terminal, and port instead of sea terminal, are much more popular. A river station is often also called a river port or marina. At stations (let's call it generically for all types of transport) there may be places for sitting, long rest rooms with sleeping places for passengers, buffets, toilets, showers, retail facilities, hairdressers, postal telephone and telegraph offices for passengers.